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COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


THOMAS   AND   HOWE 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


BY 


CHARLES   SWAIN   THOMAS,   A.M. 

HEAD    OF    THE    ENGLISH    DEPARTMENT    IN    THE    NEWTON    (MASS.) 

HIGH    SCHOOL,    FORMERLY    OF    SHORTRIDGE    HIGH 

SCHOOL,    INDIANAPOLIS 

AND 

WILL   DAVID   HOWE,   Ph.D. 

HEAD    OF    THE    ENGLISH    DEPARTMENT    IN    INDIANA    UNIVERSITY 


NEW  EDITION 


LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 

91  AND  93  FIFTH  AVENUE,  NEW  YORK 
LONDON,    BOIVrBAY,    AND   CALCUTTA 


Copyright,  1908, 
By  LONGMANS,  GREEN,   AND  CO. 


All  rlfjhts  reserved. 


First  edition,  August,  1908. 
Reprinted,  October,  igoS;   February,  June, 
1909. 


\     3{Pc: 


PREFACE 

The  purpose  of  this  book  is  to  help  the  young  student 
to  write  more  clearly  and  more  forcefully.  Our  aim  is 
not  to  train  writers  in  the  finer  graces  of  language.  That 
accomplishment  depends  upon  the  individual  student  and 
lies  beyond  our  power.  We  shall  be  content  if  those  who 
come  to  our  book  may  receive  a  fresh  desire  to  use  with 

;     greater  precision  the  simple  English  speech  which  is  our 

}    priceless  heritage. 

\        We  have  tried  to  keep  this  book  free  from  the  technical 

I  word  and  phrase,  because  we  are  persuaded  that  good 
writing  depends  upon  the  simple  essentials.     Therefore, 

I    the  main  stress  has  been  placed  upon  the  word,  sentence, 

i^  and  paragraph.  Remembering,  then,  tliat  the  plastic 
mind  of  the  young  student  is  before  us,  with  experiences 

^  and  likings  peculiar  to  him,  we  have  tried  to  furnish  that 
mind  with  clear  and  simple  directions,  with  examples 
chosen  from  good  writers,  and  exercises  which  will  test 

^  the  student's  understanding  of  the  principles  of  writing. 
A  word  to  the  teacher.  It  must  be  kept  in  mind  that 
the  mere  learning  of  rules  never  helped  anybody  to  write. 
Therefore,  we  bespeak  constant  practice  in  the  exercises 
which  we  have  included  and  in  others  which  will  suggest 
themselves  to  the  teacher.  In  many  cases,  it  may  be 
advisable  not  to  follow  the  order  of  the  chapters  of  the 
book.  Individual  teachers  and  conditions  in  individual 
schools  will  determine  the  order  selected. 

V 

398229 


vi  prI':face 

We  wish  to  acknowledge  our  indebtedness  to  tlie  fol- 
lowing publishers  for  permission  to  print  extnicts  from 
their  respective  publications  :  The  Macmillan  Company ; 
Dpdd,  Mead  and '  Co.  ;  The  Century  Co.  ;  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Company  ;  Charles  Scribner's  Sons ;  The  American 
Book  Company ;  Ginn  &  Company ;  J.  F.  Taylor  &  Co.  ; 
The  Outing  Publishing  Co. ;  Funk  and  Wagnalls  Co.  ; 
A.  C.  McClurg  &  Co.;  Scott,  Foresman  and  Co.  ;  and 
Thomas  Y.  Crowell  &  Company. 

Finally,  we  desire  sincerely  to  acknowledge  our  debt 
to  those  whose  books  have  helped  us  in  our  teaching,  who 
have  made  such  a  book  as  this  possible,  and  we  only  trust 
that  this  task  may  add  something,  howsoever  little,  to 
that  valuable  subject,  the  teaching  of  English  Composition. 

CHARLES   SWAIN   THOMAS, 
WILL   DAVID   HOWE. 


CONTENTS 


I.     The  Composition  as  a  Whole 

Unity 

Coherence  ...... 

Emphasis 

II.     The  Paragraph  and  its  Structure 
Unity  in  the  Paragraph     . 
Coherence  in  the  Paragraph 
Emphasis  in  the  Paragraph 
Methods  of  Paragraph  Develojiment 

III.  The  Sentence 

Development  of  Phrase,  Clause,  and  Sentence 
Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound  Sentences 
Arrangement  of  Elements  in  the  Sentence 
Loose  and  Periodic  Sentences   . 

IV.  Rhetorical  Essentials  of  the  Sentence 

Unity  in  the  Sentence 
Coherence  in  the  Sentence 
Emphasis  in  the  Sentence 

V.    Words 

Words  judged  by  Correctness 
Words  judged  by  Effectiveness 
How  to  secure  a  Large  Vocabulary 

VI.     Letter  Writing 

The  Parts  of  a  Letter 

Friendly  Letters 

Invitations  and  Other  Social  Notes 

Business  Letters 

vii 


.  1-3:3 
.  11 
.  17 
.      20 

34-84 
.       42 

.  51 
.       56 

.       58 

85-125 

.  85 
.  89 
.  114 
.     117 

126-160 
.  126 
.  138 
.  149 

161-201 
.  161 
.  176 

.  187 

202-238 
.  203 
.  214 
.  232 
.  235 


vin  CONTENTS 

CriAPTER 

VII.     FoKMs  OF  Discourse 239-347 

Narration         ••......  248 

Description      •••.....  072 

Exposition 3Qg 

Argumentation 332 

\  III.     Okal  Composition 348-396 

Story-telling 37O 

Description ^qq 

IX.  TiiKME  CoKKECTiNG  .  .  .  ,  '  .  .  397-423 
X.     Punctuation 424-454 

XI.    CoMMox  Ekkors  in  Grammar      ....     455-504 

Errors  in  Case 45g 

Errors  in  Agreement 453 

Errors  in  the  Uses  of  the  Verb 469 

Other  Common  Errors 493 

Figures  of  Speech _     595 


Index 


613 


CHAPTER  I 

THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A  WHOLE 

This  book  deals  with  subjects  in  which  the  pupils  who 
use  it  are  already  interested,  and  about  which  they  already 
have  some  ideas.  The  first  chapter  will  contain  a  few 
simple,  and  possibly  familiar,  yet  very  important  sugges- 
tions in  answer  to  the  questions :  What  shall  I  write 
about?  How  can  I  learn  to  write  freely,  clearly,  and 
interestingly  ? 

CHOOSIKG  THE   SUBJECT 

Oftentimes  the  pupil  has  subjects  assigned  him.  At 
other  times,  however,  he  is  given  permission  to  write  on 
any  topic  he  may  select.  What,  he  may  ask  himself, 
should  govern  this  choice?  The  best  answer  to  our  ques- 
tion is  this  :  He  should  write  of  interesting  things  ivith  tvhich 
he  is  familiar. 

The  pupil  who  accepts  this  answer  can  learn  to  write 
clearly  and  entertainingly,  but  he  must  write  of  things 
which  he  comprehends.  Sometimes  he  is  tempted  to  write 
on  subjects  that  sound  big.  Most  of  these  are  so  far 
beyond  him  that  he  cannot  express  any  clear  or  inter- 
esting notions  about  them.  "  Optimism,"  "  Musings  on 
Life,"  "The  American  Ideal,"  "Liberty,"  "Carried  by 
the  Tide  "  —  any  of  these  topics  might  be  handled  by 
a  master,  but  just  now  the  young  writer's  impressions 
B  1 


2  COMrOSITIOX    AND   RHETORIC 

of  each  are  too  shadowy  to  be  worthy  of  record.  A 
Ijarticiilar  pupil  is  interested  in  collecting  old  coins  or 
arrowlieads,  or  stamps,  or  souvenir  post  cards.  Wliy 
should  he  not  write  of  these?  Another  pupil  is  interested 
in  birds.  Last  Saturday  as  he  sat  in  the  shade  of  the 
apple  tree  in  his  backyard,  he  noticed  a  sparrow  building 
her  nest ;  for  two  hours  he  sat  there  watching  the  work ; 
surely  he  can  reflect  some  of  this  interest  in  a  written 
tlienie.  Interesting  places  he  has  visited,  interesting 
things  he  has  done,  interesting  traits  he  has  noticed  of 
animals  or*  of  persons  —  any  of  these  topics  he  can  write 
about  in  a  way  that  will   entertain  his  readers. 

To  be  more  exact  in  our  suggestions,  we  have  set  down 
some  specific  titles  that  will  embrace  many  of  the  inter- 
ests of  pupils.  From  this  list  the  pupil  may  from  time 
to.  time  select  subjects  for  his  themes. 

SUGGESTIVE  LIST  OF   THEME  TITLES 

1.  My  First  Public  Speech. 

2.  Christmas  at  Grandfather's. 

3.  My  Big  Wax  Doll. 

4.  Choir  Practice  Last  Saturday. 

5.  Buying  a  Canoe. 

6.  Selecting  a  Book  for  Cousin  Mabel. 

7.  My  First  Experience  in  Gardening. 

8.  When  My  Bay  Colt  Won  the  Premium. 

9.  How  My  Little  Joke  Succeeded. 

10.  Why  I  Pity  Shylock. 

11.  My  Hero  in  Fiction. 

12.  My  Mother's  Strongest  Trait. 

13.  The  Best  Fudge  I  Ever  Made. 

14.  Sleighing  Last  Wednesday. 

15.  I\Iy  Finst  Day  at  Scliool. 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  3 

16.  A  Punishment  I  Did  Not  Deserve. 

17.  My  Keasons  for  Liking  Evangeline  Better  than  Priscilla. 

18.  One  Thing  I  Learned  from  the  Book  of  Ruth. 

19.  Cousin  Jack's  Cabin  on  the  Plains. 

20.  How  to  Select  a  Necktie. 

21.  An  Experience  in  the  Dark. 

22.  Two  Christmas  Days. 

23.  Uncle  Tom's  Hobby. 

24.  How  I  Once  Got  Enjoyment  out  of  a  Disagreeable  Task. 

25.  Breaking  a  Colt. 

26.  My  Worst  Mistake  in  English.  ' 

27.  Trying  to  Correct  a  Bad  Habit. 

28.  The  Last  Time  I  Lost  My  Temper. 

29.  My  Pet  Economy. 

30.  Why  I  Prefer  Baseball  to  Football. 

31.  Why  Our  School  Should  Award  but  One  Kind  of  Initial 
in  Athletics. 

32.  The  Dangers  in  High  School  Fraternities. 

33.  My  Little  Brother's  Boat  Pvide. 

34.  My  First  Business  Venture. 

35.  Why  I  have  Selected College. 

36.  How  I  Became  Interested  in  Art. 

37.  My  First  Attempt  to  Run  an  Automobile. 

38.  How  to  Play  (any  kind  of  game). 

39.  When  My  Bicycle  Broke  Down. 

40.  My  First  Punishment  in  School. 

41.  How  My  Bravery  was  Tested. 

42.  Why  One  of  My  Air  Castles  Collapsed. 

43.  Uncle  George's  Crotchet. 

44.  How  to  Hemstitch  a  Tablecloth. 

45.  How  to  Make  Baking  Powder  Biscuits. 

46.  A  Laboratory  Experiment. 

47.  How  a  Cream  Separator  Works. 

48.  How  to  Run  a  Lathe. 

49.  What  I  Can  Do  with  a  Dry  Battery. 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

50.  How  to  Select  Seed  Corn. 

51.  My  One  Extravagant  Habit. 

52.  Sunday  Morning  on  the  Farm. 

53.  Twenty  ^linutes  on  My  Bicycle. 


LIMITING   THE   SUBJECT 

Let  us  assume  that  one  of  our  schoolmates  has  now 
made  up  his  mind  to  write  on  the  subject  of  Christmas. 
He  realizes  naturally  Miat  this  is  a  big  subject.  It  sug- 
gests to  him  almost  countless  ideas,  — the  shepherd's  watch 
on  the  hills  of  Bethlehem,  the  coming  of  the  wise  men 
from  the  East,  the  little  child  born  in  the  manger,  and,  in 
addition,  all  the  varied  thoughts  and  pictures  that  connect 
themselves  with  modern  celebrations,  at  home  and  else- 
where. Any  one  of  these  he  might  choose,  but  the  ideas 
he  finds  recurring  oftenest  in  his  rapid  thinking,  center, 
let  us  say,  about  his  two  most  recent  Christmas  days, 
—  one  spent  in  his  home  in  New  England,  the  other  with 
his  grandparents  in  Florida.  When  he  has  finally  decided 
to  write  about  these  two  days,  he  is  ready  for  the  next 
step.  His  composition  must  have  unity  ;  and  to  secure 
this  he  must  from  the  outset  know  clearly  just  what  he  is 
writing  about.  So  he  proceeds  to  frame  a  sentence,  either 
declarative  or  interrogative,  that  will  summarize  his  main 
idea.  In  the  particular  case  we  are  discussing,  he  formu- 
lates this  general  guiding  sentence  in  interrogative  form: 

What  were  the  characteristics  of  the  northern  day  which 
contrasted  with  the  characteristics  of  the  southern  day? 

He  then  proceeds  to  make  an  outline,  selecting  some 
ideas,  discarding  others,  and  deciding  which  shall  come  at 
the  beginning,  which  in  the  middle,  and  which  at  the  end 


THE    COMPOSITION    AS   A   WHOLE  5 

of  the  composition.     When  completed,  the  outline  may  be 
in  some  such  form  as  this  : 

Two  Christmas  Days 
Suggestive  Outline 

1.  Usually  cold  and  snowy  in  the  North  at  Christinas. 

2.  A  northern  boy  finds  many  strange  things  in  the  South 
at  Christmas. 

a.  No  frost  on  windows. 
h.  Roses  and  flowers. 

c.  No  fire  necessary. 

d.  Gifts  on  orange  trees. 

e.  No  snowballing  ;  no  bobsled  rides. 
/.  Can  romp  as  in  summer  time. 

3.  Christmas  in  the  South  may  be  as  joyous  as  it  is  in  the 
North. 

The  writer  has  now  limited  not  only  the  whole  theme 
but  the  separate  ideas  as  well.  Moreover,  he  has,  in  a 
general  way,  put  into  form  his  notions  of  an  introduc- 
tion, a  body,  and  a  conclusion.  His  arrangement  may 
be  crude,  but  it  will  serve  the  purpose  of  a  definite  guide. 

WRITING   THE   THEME 

When  the  outline  has  been  completed,  the  pupil  should 
immediately  commence  his  writing.  With  the  details 
fresh  in  his  mind,  he  can  go  to  work  and  at  a  single  sit- 
ting complete  his  short  theme.  He  will  follow  his  outline 
as  long  as  he  sees  that  it  is  a  practical  guide,  but  he  will 
not  allow  this  guide  to  be  his  master.  \i  he  finds  it 
faulty,  he  may  either  correct  it  or  discard  it,  but  he  will 
under  no   circumstance   forsfet  that  he   must  follow   the 


6  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

direction  which  his  general  guiding  sentence  has  fixed. 
By  thus  refusing  the  allurements  of  the  bypaths,  he  will 
be  sure  to  reach  his  goal. 

In  order  that  he  may  be  safely  forewarned,  however,  it 
is  well  enougli  that  he  may  know  in  some  detail  what 
these  bypaths  are.  One  is  the  idea  which  seems  related, 
but  which  really  leads  far  afield.  Another  is  gaudy 
diction,  which  draws  attention  to  itself  rather  than  to 
the  thought.  The  pupil  should  be  sim[)le  and  straight- 
forward. When  he  cannot  decide  at  once  between  two 
expressions,  he  should  put  one  of  them  in  parentheses  and 
trust  the  final  choice  to  revision.  Still  another  bypath 
is  dishonesty.  We  sometimes  find  it  easier  to  phrase  the 
old  thought  which  is  false  than  to  phrase  the  new  thought 
which  is  true.  Good  writing  means  honest  writing,  and 
frankness  contributes  to  force.  Bat  of  all  allurements, 
perhaps  the  greatest  is  the  temptation  to  stop  before  the 
theme  is  finished.  The  pupil  should  complete  his  theme. 
It  will  be  easier  to  do  it  now  than  when  delay  has  destroyed 
both  the  interest  and  the  connection.  The  result  may  not 
satisfy,  but  here  again  the  revision  may  settle  the  question. 

The  pupil,  then,  must  refuse  to  be  led  astray.  He  must 
go  ahead.  With  the  completed  outline  before  him,  the 
pupil  who  has  wisely  chosen  his  subject  and  who  has  care- 
fully limited  his  theme  may  be  able  to  write  the  following 
as  his  first  draft. 

Two  Christmas  Days 

To  one  who  has  always  thought  of  Christinas  as  a  time  of 
snowstorms  and  biting  cold  weather,  spending  the  holidays  in 
a  southern  state  is  a  novel  experience.  Though  he  expects, 
when  he  wakens,  to  find  delicate  fairy  flowers  traced  upon  the 
glass  by  the  frost,  he  is  greeted  by  real  roses,  nodding  in  a 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  7 

friendly  manner  through  the  open  windows.  After  breakfast, 
instead  of  assembling  with  the  others  around  a  candle-lighted 
fir  tree  in  a  room  heated  by  a  roaring  fire,  he  races  down  the 
path  in  the  sunshine  to  an  orange  tree  decked  not  merely  with 
artificial  ornaments,  but  with  its  own  luscious  fruit.  From  it 
he  receives  the  gifts  which  were  too  large  for  Santa  Clans  to  put 
into  the  stockings.  He  hears  no  jingle  of  sleigh  bells  as  people 
muffled  in  furs  go  riding  by;  for  here  it  is  so  warm  that  shoes 
and  stockings,  at  any  time  needless  articles  of  clothing,  are 
now  unbearable.  To  romp  in  the  snow,  pelting  poor  passers- 
by  with  balls,  and  to  attach  his  sled  to  the  rear  of  a  sleigh  and 
go  whizzing  over  crunching  snow  are  pleasures  not  to  be  en- 
joyed in  the  South.  Here,  joined  by  the  children  from  the 
neighboring  ranches,  he  runs  and  races  all  day  without  hat  or 
wrap,  playing  "  tag,"  "  hide-and-go-seek,"  "  beef -steak,"  "  stand- 
still," "  go-sheepie-go,"  and  every  other  out-of-door  game  imag- 
inable, resting  only  long  enough  to  snatch  a  guava  from  the 
bush,  or  to  gather  around  Grandma  as  she  obligingly  peels 
orange  after  orange  for  the  children,  "  hungry  as  bears."  And 
when  the  day,  which  seems  so  short,  is  over,  he  thinks  that  a 
Christmas  without  ice  and  snow  is  not  so  bad  after  all. 

The  observant  student  has  learned  that,  immediately 
after  writing  his  theme,  it  is  a  good  j)lan  to  put  it  away 
for  a  time.  When  he  takes  it  up  for  revision,  he  can  view 
it  more  impartially.  This  later  criticism  will  reveal  faults 
which  in  the  midst  of  the  actual  work  of  composition  he 
has  not  seen.  It  will  not  be  surprising,  then,  if  in  "Two 
Christmas  Days"  a  later  careful  re-reading  by  the  writer 
convinces  him  that  he  lias  not  given  in  his  theme  the  sharp 
contrasts  which  his  title  promised.  Instead  of  two  distinct 
days  in  two  distinct  years,  he  has  given  us  the  general  notion 
of  a  southern  Christmas  day  contrasted  with  the  general 
notion  of  a  northern  Christmas  day.  Evidently  this  is  not 
what  the  title  promised.      He  himself  sees  this,  and  he  sets 


8  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

iibout  to  revise  his  tlieme.  As  he  writes,  he  sees  other  faults. 
His  previous  work,  good  in  the  main,  is  too  impersonal ; 
he  has  not  made  his  readers  feel  his  own  part  and  interest 
in  the  two  contrasted  days.  These  two  main  faults  and 
other  minor  ones  he  tries  to  correct.  When  he  has  finished 
the  revision,  he  has  secured  a  more  graphic  effect  and  a  more 
definite  contrast  of  the  northern  and  southern  Christmas. 

Two  Christmas  Days 

Pens  AC  OLA,  Florida, 

Christinas,  1907. 
My  dear  Cousix  Jack, 

It  is  eight  o'clock  at  night  and  Christmas  is  over.  A  score 
of  times  to-day  I  liave  thought  of  you,  Jack,  as  I  remembered 
the  hilarious  times  we  had  last  Christmas  when  you  visited  us 
ill  our  Milwaukee  home.  I  know  you  have  not  forgotten  those 
frosty  window  panes  in  the  spare  bedroom,  even  though  tli,e 
atmosj)here  that  morning  was  a  little  too  chilly  for  us  to 
enjoy  all  the  beauties  of  the  silvery  flowers  and  trees  and 
castles.  One  of  the  palaces,  I  recall,  you  picked  out  for  yours, 
and  you  threatened  to  pound  me  black  and  blue  if  I  didn't  quit 
blowing  my  warm,  smoky  breath  upon  it.  After  breakfast, 
what  fun  we  had!  We  gathered  in  the  library,  all  aglow  with 
the  old-fashioned  wood  fire  which  Papa  had  built  in  the  big 
firej^lace,  and  there  we  unwrapped  all  the  various  bundles 
which  Santa  Claus  had  left  for  us.  Then  we  boys  got  our 
sleds,  hurried  out  into  the  street,  and  stole  what  rides  we  could 
from  passing  sleighs  as  they  went  whizzing  over  the  crunching 
snow.  We  staid  out  of  doors  until  we  were  nearly  frozen,  and 
then  went  back  to  the  library  to  warm  our  toes  and  eat  our 
candy  and  read  our  books  and  tease  our  little  sisters,  while 
they  dressed  their  new  dolls. 

What  a  different  day  I  have  spent  down  here  in  Florida! 
When  I  awoke  this  morning,  real  roses  were  nodding  to  me  at 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  9 

the  east  window,  and  the  air  outside  was  warm  and  inviting. 
After  breakfast  we  cliildren  all  hurried  out  into  the  sunshine 
and  raced  down  the  path  to  an  orange  tree  which  Papa  and 
Mamma  had  decked  with  artificial  ornaments  and  which  nature 
had  adorned  Avith  its  own  luscious  yellow  fruit.  And  here  we 
received  the  gifts  which  were  too  large  for  Santa  to  put  into 
our  stockings.  Later  we  were  joined  by  other  children  from 
the  neighboring  ranches,  and  we  ran  and  raced  all  day,  without 
hats  or  wraps,  playing  "  tag,"  "  hide-and-go-seek,"  "  beef-steak," 
"  standstill,"  "  go-sheepie-go,"  and  every  other  out-of-door 
game  imaginable.  We  stopped  only  long  enough  to  snatch 
now  and  then  a  guava  from  the  bush  or  to  gather  round 
Grandma  as  she  obligingly  peeled  orange  after  orange,  which 
we  greedily  ate. 

And  now  that  the  day  is  over,  I  think  that  Christmas  with- 
out ice  and  snow  is  not  so  bad  after  all.  Only,  I  wish,  Jack, 
that  you  could  have  shared  in  all  this  sport. 

Your  affectionate  cousin, 

Leslie. 

This  revision  shows  a  sharper  contrast  between  the  two 
distinct  Christmas  mornings.  It  suggests  further  that 
the  writer  has  himself  felt  a  keener  interest  and  has  more 
thoroughly  reflected  himself  in  what  he  has  written. 
General  ideas  have  become  more  specific,  so  that  we  picture 
more  easily  the  boy  moving  about  in  the  scenes  he  de- 
scribes. These  vital  qualities  of  writing  do  not  belong 
alone  to  Shakspere,  Lowell,  Hawthorne,  Van  Dyke,  and 
others  who  have  won  their  way.  They  do  belong  to  them, 
and  they  may  likewise  belong  to  us.  And  when  we  have 
begun  to  master  these  qualities,  our  task  will  grow  easier  ; 
for  the  definite  details  will  of  themselves  constantly  urge 
interest  and  direct  us.  We  see,  for  instance,  that  when 
Leslie  wrote  that  personal  letter,  he  was  really  interested 
in  tellinsr  Jack  about  each  various  incident  of  the  Florida 


10  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Christmas.  Of  course  it  was  not  necessary  for  him  to  put 
his  composition  into  letter  form  ;  he  chanced  upon  that 
plan,  and  his  work  was  successful.  Perhaps  sometimes, 
when  our  writing  seems  stiff  and  cold,  we  can  enliven  it  by 
using  tlie  same  device. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Try  retvriting  the  theme  without  using  the  letter  form. 
Remember  to  bring  out  the  contrast  which  the  title,  '*  Two 
Christmas  Dai/s,'^  suggests. 

II.  Select  one  of  the  titles  given  on  pages  2—4,  and  ivrite 
a  composition  in  which  your  aim  ivill  be  to  make  your  reader 
see.,  as  plainly  as  you  see,  the  pictures  that  pass  before  your 
mind  as  you  write.  Carefully  observe  the  directions  printed 
beloiv. 

BRIEF   GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

Mechanical  Points. 

1.  Use  paper  10|  x  8|  (approximately). 

2.  Write  with  black  ink  on  one  side  of  the  paper  only. 

3.  Write  tlie  title  on  the  first  line.  Capitalize  impor- 
tant words  of  the  title.  Draw  two  parallel  lines,  or  one 
waved  line,  under  each  word.  Leave  one  line  blank  be- 
tween the  title  and  the  beginning  of  the  composition. 

4.  Begin  each  paragraph  one  inch  from  the  left-hand 
margin.  All  other  lines  sliould  start  at  margin.  Try  to 
keep  the  right-hand  margin  straight. 

5.  Do  not  crowd  your  words.  Use  tlie  hyphen  cau- 
tiously, at  the  end  of  lines,  with  careful  attention  to  the 
division  of  words  into  their  proper  syllables. 

The  Whole  Composition.  —  Frame  in  your  mind  a  plan 
of  your  theme,  —  its  beginning,  its  main  points,  its  end. 
Write  the  first  draft  with  speed.     To  correct  errors  rely 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  11 

mainly  upon  revision.  In  revising,  consider  your  words, 
your  sentences,  and  your  paragraphs. 

Words.  —  Choose  simple  words  whicli  suggest  motion, 
feeling,  form,  color,  odor,  sound  ---  words  that  will  make 
the  reader's  feelings  or  impressions  correspond  to  your 
own.  Be  especially  careful  in  the  choice  of  adjectives  and 
verbs.  Beware  of  slang,  provincialisms,  colloquialisms. 
Study  the  use  of  words  for  particular  effects  in  some  one 
author,  e.g.  Stevenson,  Kipling,  Thackeray,  Ruskin,  Haw- 
thorne, Tennyson. 

Sentences.  —  See  that  every  sentence  is  necessary.  Try 
to  keep  each  sentence  interesting  to  the  end.  Seek  for 
variety  in  sentence  structure.  In  revising,  question 
whether  those  words  which  are  closely  connected  in 
thought  stand  close  together. 

Paragraph.  —  See  to  it  that  each  paragraph  follows  log- 
ically the  one  which  precedes,  and  leads  naturally  to  the 
one  which  follows.  As  suggestive  models  in  mechanical 
structure,  study  the  paragraphs  in  Irving,  Hawthorne, 
Curtis,  Stevenson,  and  Macaulay. 

ITNITY 

It  has  been  said  that  the  whole  composition  should  say 
a  single  thing.  Many  different  ideas  may  be  introduced,  but 
each  idea  must  be  so  selected,  so  arranged,  and  so  phrased 
that  the  effect  of  the  entire  theme  emphasizes  one  master 
idea.  The  title  and  the  topic  sentence  should  so  limit  the 
theme  that  all  unrelated  ideas  will  be  excluded.  When 
two  boys  prepare  a  tennis  court,  they  fix  lines.  In  play- 
ing the  game,  balls  served  wholly  outside  of  these  lines 
must  be  ignored;  balls  served  wholly  inside  of  these  lines 
must  be  reckoned  with.      Similarly,  the  writer  establishes 


12  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

limits  for  his  theme.  Ideas  that  have  no  place  in  the  plan, 
he  discards;  related  ideas  that  develop  or  clarify  the  gen- 
eral thought,  he  accepts.  Only  by  applying  constantly 
this  test  of  relationship,  and  thus  assuring  himself  that 
all  of  his  explanations,  illustrations,  and  anecdotes  bear 
upon  the  subject,  will  he  secure  this  singleness  of  thought. 
This  single  idea,  which  the  whole  composition  is  intended 
to  develop,  may  be  designated  the  master  idea;  the  other 
ideas,  which  aid  in  the  development  of  the  master  idea, 
may  be  appropriately  called  the  serving  ideas.  To  deter- 
mine whether  every  detail  contributes  to  the  main  thought 
or  master  idea,  every  writer  will  find  it  helpful  frequently 
toask  liimself:  Am  I  developing  one  topic?  Am  I  saying 
a  single  thing?  The  rhetorical  principle  that  is  thus 
tested  we  call  unity.     Accordingly  we  may  say  that 

Unity  of  the  whole  composition  is  that  principle  which 
demands  that  every  detail  employed  should  aid  directly  in 
the  development  of  the  main  idea. 

To  the  young  writer,  especially,  the  testing  of  his  writ- 
ing by  this  princij^le  will  prove  helpful.  In  planning  a 
composition  on  "  Why  I  Expect  to  be  a  Farmer,"  for  ex- 
ample, he  may  set  down  somewhat  aimlessly  the  following 
items : 

Why  I  Expect  to  be  a  Farmer 

1.  Farming  allows  one  to  be  out  of  doors. 

2.  My  grandfather  was  a  farmer. 

3.  My  grandfather  was  also  a  strong  Democrat. 

4.  Farming  is  profitable. 

5.  Banking  is  likewise  profitable. 

6.  Farm  lands  are  increasing  in  value. 

7.  Farmers  can  live  cheaply. 

8.  Living  is  now  more  expensive  than  it  was  ten  years  ago. 

9.  Farmers  are  independent. 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  13 

By  applying  the  test  of  unity  to  these  ideas,  the  writer 
finds  that  items  3,  5,  and  8  may  be  at  once  discarded  be- 
cause their  relationship  to  the  main  idea  is  too  remote. 
Item  2  appears  but  slightly  related  and  may  be  retained 
or  discarded  according  to  the  actual  influence  the  grand- 
father has  exerted  in  the  writer's  choice  of  a  vocation.  In 
this  particular  case  he  assumes  that  it  is  important  and 
will  retain  it  in  the  outline.  Items  6  and  7  may  be  treated 
as  subdivisions  under  4.  After  the  test  is  applied,  items  1, 
2,  4,  and  9  are  retained  as  main  points  in  the  treatment  of 
the  theme.  Tlie  revised  outline  he  may  now  arrange, 
changing  the  order  slightly. 

Why  I  Expect  to  be  a  Farmer 

Outline 

1.  My  grandfather,  who  was  a  farmer,  showed  me  how  in- 
teresting farming  was. 

2.  Farming  allows  one  to  be  out  of  doors. 

3.  Farming  is  profitable. 

a.   Farmers  can  live  cheaply. 

h.   Farm  lands  constantly  increase  in  value. 

4.  Farming  allows  one  to  be  independent. 

EXERCISE 

Write  a  composition  from  the  foregoing  outline. 

Even  the  pupil  who  applies  this  test  of  unity  to  the 
items  of  his  outline  may  be  careless  enough  to  allow  unre- 
lated ideas  to  intrude  while  he  is  writing.  In  the  first 
sentence,  he  is,  unless  he  guards  himself,  likely  to  make  a 
slip.  Let  us  apply  the  test  to  the  opening  of  the  follow- 
ing theme: 


14  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


The  Descriptiok  of  a  Hunter's  Cabin 

Not  every  one  has  had  the  opportunity  of  seeing  a  typical 
hunter's  cabin.  On  entering  the  cabin  of  a  hunter  who  lives 
in  the  Maine  forests,  I  found  myself  in  a  room  about  twenty 
feet  square,  dimly  lighted  by  two  or  three  small  windows  and 
by  a  glowing  fire  in  the  large  fireplace.  I  could  dimly  see  a 
kettle  suspended  from  a  large  crane  hung  over  the  fire,  and  as 
my  eyes  became  accustomed  to  the  light,  I  saw  that  on  the 
sides  of  the  fireplace  hung  the  pots  and  other  cooking  utensils. 
A  stately  pair  of  elk  horns  which  branched  out  from  above  the 
fireplace  held  the  guns,  powder-horn,  bullet-pouch,  and  the 
spare  clothing  of  my  host.  Near  the  fireplace,  two  roomy 
bunks,  filled  with  heavy  blankets  and  skins  of  various  kinds, 
stood  against  the  mud-daubed  walls.  Dangling  from  the  heavy 
rafters  of  the  ceiling  were  bear  haunches  and  large  pieces  of 
jerked  venison.  The  corner  on  one  side  of  the  door  was  occu- 
pied by  a  large  box  for  storing  provisions,  and  around  this  box 
were  scattered  old  boots  and  moccasins  and  sections  of  logs 
for  the  fireplace.  A  rough  table  of  pine  boards  surrounded  by 
three  or  four  three-legged  stools  stood  in  the  middle  of  the 
room,  while  the  remaining  corner  was  occupied  by  a  hand- 
some dog  entertaining  a  litter  of  wriggling  pups  on  a  bed  of 
pine  needles. 

Every  pupil  will  see  that  tlie  first  sentence  violates 
unity.  This  sentence  suggests  how  rare  is  the  oppor- 
tunity of  seeing  a  typical  hunter's  cabin.  What  we  want, 
is  merely  the  incidental  mention  of  the  writer's  opportu- 
nity.    The  sentence  might  be  revised  to  read, 

i    Last  summer,  while  tramping  through  Maine,  I  came  one  day 
upon  a  typical  hunter's  cabin. 

If  such  a  change  be  made,  the  word  Maine.,  should  of 
course  be  omitted  in  the  second  sentence. 


the  composition  as  a  whole  15 

exercisp:s 

I.  Examine  the  rest  of  the  foregoing  composition  and  apply 
the  test  of  unity. 

II.  Examine  the  following  composition  and  decide  whether 
it  possesses  unity.      Write  out  the  reaso7is  for  your  answer. 

An  Ancient  Room 

The  most  interesting  room  in  the  world  to  me  is  the  guest 
chamber  of  my  grandfather's  house  in  New  Hampshire.  The 
furnishings  are  most  antique,  being  over  a  hundred  years  old. 
The  first  object  that  attracts  one's  attention  is  the  tall  four- 
post  bed  of  walnut.  It  was  first  brought  into  the  room  when 
Great-grandmother  came  to  preside  as  mistress  over  the  house- 
hold. It  was  she  who  made  the  broad  ruffled  canopy  over  it. 
The  cross-stitch  tidies  on  the  chair  backs  were  also  wrought  by 
her  skillful  fingers.  Even  the  old  rag  carpet  on  the  floor  she 
wove.  The  tall  cedar  chest  remains  where  it  has  been  for 
years,  —  in  the  corner.  Upon  opening  its  doors,  one  sees 
shelves  laden  with  homespun  towels  and  sheets.  From  frames 
of  gilt,  on  the  walls,  ladies  in  stiff  brocades  and  lace  look  down, 
and  gentlemen  with  stern  faces,  powdered  queues,  and  ruffled 
waistcoats  glance  at  every  one  who  enters  the  room.  These 
are  the  ancestral  portraits.  In  the  center  of  the  eastern  wall 
a  tall  mahogany  clock  has  been  ticking  away  for  three  genera- 
tions. Hanging  over  the  old  clock  is  a  relic  that  is  highly 
prized  by  my  Grandfather.  It  is  an  old  musket  carried  in  the 
Revolutionary  War  by  some  great-great-uncle  of  Grandfather's, 
who  lost  his  life  in  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  —  the  great 
strife  for  our  country.  The  musket  is  old  and  rusty,  and  the 
leather  strap  by  which  it  is  suspended  is  nearly  worn  in  two. 
An  air  of  antiquity,  which  I  love,  prevails  in  the  room,  and 
causes  me  to  spend  a  great  deal  of  my  time  in  it  when  I  visit 
New  Hampshire  every  summer. 


16  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 

Write  a  theme  on  ^'- My  Favorite  Book.''''  Give  special 
attention  to  the  principle  of  unity. 

Even  Avheii  the  pupil  gets  the  right  start,  he  often 
offends  against  this  principle  of  unity  by  digressing. 
The  line  of  digression  may  be  at  first  so  near  the  main 
idea  that  he  sees  no  danger  in  following  it.  He  soon  finds, 
however,  that  he  is  far  from  the  main  idea.  Instead  of 
following  the  main  road,  he  has  turned  into  a  byway  that 
leads  far  from  his  destination. 

For  instance,  in  writing  an  essay  on  the  Juvenile  Court 
of  Chicago,  the  pupil  may  properly  contrast  it  or  com- 
pare it  with  the  Juvenile  Court  of  Denver;  but  if  he  then 
allows  himself  to  get  so  interested  in  writing  about  the 
court  of  Denver  as  to  forget  that  his  subject  is  the  court 
of  Chicago,  he  has  been  guilty  of  a  serious  offense  against 
unity.  The  remedy  lies  in  excision.  The  writer  must  go 
back  to  the  point  at  which  the  serving  idea  usurped  the 
place  of  the  master  idea,  and  must  resolutely  cut  out  the 
offending  sentences. 

Unity,  then,  results  from  a  writer's  following  out  a  firm 
resolve  to  include  essential  items,  and  to  exclude  irrel- 
evant items.  When  the  writer  constructs  his  outline,  he 
will  rigorously  apply  this  test.  When  he  writes  his 
opening  sentence,  he  will  go  directly,  but  not  abruptly, 
toward  his  subject.  This  opening  sentence  will  be  fol- 
lowed by  those  which  explain  or  enforce  closely  related 
ideas. 

Throughout  his  composition  the  writer  will  see  that  each 
serving  idea  does  its  j)roper  work,  not  usurping  the  place 
of  the  master  idea,  but  aiding  directly  in  its  development. 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  17 

COHERENCE 

A  composition  may  have  unity,  and  yet  fail  because  the 
parts  are  not  closely  or  properly  joined.  The  serving  ideas 
do  not  work  in  harmony  with  one  another  or  with  the 
master  idea.  We  say  of  such  compositions  that  they  lack 
coherence.  Let  us  look  at  the  following  composition  and 
see  whether  or  not  there  is  sufficiently  close  connection 
between  the  parts. 

The  Falls  of  Niagara  from  the  American  Side 

The  falls  of  Niagara,  as  one  stands  gazing  at  them  from  the 
American  shore,  form  a  magnificent  picture.  The  water  rolls 
gracefully  over  the  rocks  into  the  depths  beneath  and  goes 
tumbling  and  roaring  downward  toward  the  Whirlpool  Rapids 
a  mile  below.  Here,  as  we  stand  on  the  Canadian  side,  we 
can  see  the  E,a2:)ids  churning  the  waters  into  a  white  and 
raging  foam.  Under  the  falls  there  is  a  great  deal  of  mist, 
and  we  have  difficulty  in  breathing  when  we  first  enter. 

In  this  passage  we  expect  the  writer  to  keep  his  posi- 
tion as  an  observer  near  the  Falls  on  the  American  side, 
and  to  write  of  nothing  except  what  he  sees  from  that 
point.  Suddenly,  however,  without  warning  his  readers, 
tbe  writer  is  describing  the  Rapids,  a  mile  below,  as  he 
sees  them  from  the  Canadian  shore.  Tlien,  just  as  sud- 
denly, his  thoughts  take  another  turn,  and  he  shifts  us 
under  the  Falls.  He  would  have  avoided  confusion  if 
he  had  used  connectives  to  inform  the  reader  of  each 
change  in  the  point  of  view.  In  such  a  short  composition 
it  is  still  better  to  have  but  one  point  of  view. 

Having  seen  how  coherence  is  violated,  we  are  better 
prepared  to  define  it. 


18  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Coherence  is  that  principle  which  demands  that  all  the 
parts  of  the  composition  shall  be  firmly  held  together. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Expand  the  theme  printed  on  page  17.  As  you  write, 
remember  that  you  must  make  the  theme  coherent.  You 
should  keep  one  point  of  view. 

II.  Write  a  theme  that  makes  use  of  all  of  the  folloiving 
words :  tvoods,  dog,  stone  fence,  country,  tavem,  oah-tree. 
Shift  the  point  of  view  once;  but  in  doing  this  be  sure  to  warn 
your  reader. 

As  in  description  it  is  well  to  keep  one  point  of  view, 
so  in  telling  a  story,  the  writer  will  be  on  safer  ground  if 
he  narrates  the  important  events  in  the  order  in  which 
they  occur.  By  giving  careful  attention  to  the  time  se- 
quence, he  will  be  able  to  make  his  narrative  coherent. 
In  explaining  anything,  he  should  begin  with  the  things 
which  the  reader  knows,  and  proceed,  step  by  step,  to  the 
things  which  the  reader  does  not  know. 

These  general  directions  cannot  be  followed  without 
the  frequent  use  of  connectives.  Too  much  reliance 
should  not  be  placed  upon  such  common  connectives  as 
and,  then,  but,  and  so.  These  are  good  in  themselves,  but, 
aside  from  tiie  monotony  which  their  repetition  produces, 
they  do  not  always  effectively  point  the  way. 

Such  expressions  as  the  following  will  help  to  connect 
the  ideas  and  to  keep  clear  the  sequence:  moreover,  fur- 
thermore, in  addition  to  this,  likewise,  similarly,  in  like 
manner,  depending  upon  this,  growing  out  of  this,  as  a 
result,  the  foregoing  discussion,  nevertheless,  however, 
again,  accordingly,  for  this  reason,  on  the  contrary,  in 
fact,  in  reality,  noting  all  the  while,  in  the  next  place, 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  19 

consequently,  finally,  in  conclusion,  thereupon,  instantly, 
presently,  all  at  once,  at  length,  then  too,  another,  still 
another,  this  had  no  sooner  happened  than,  on  the  whole, 
not  only  —  but  also. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  composition  point  out  the  violations  of 
unity  and  coherence. 

Why  I  AM  CHOOSING  Jevons  College 

Jevons  is  not  the  greatest,  largest,  nor  most  eminent  of 
the  colleges  of  America  in  any  way,  although,  if  any  college 
could  be  selected  from  the  many  colleges  of  more  or  less  prom- 
inence, I  think  Jevons  would  equal  it  in  every  respect  and 
in  all  the  branches  of  the  college. 

I  do  not  know  much  about  Jevons,  although  I  have  visited 
there  many  times.  If  you  will  ask  any  one  about  the  life  at 
the  college,  even  if  he  has  ever  attended  the  University,  he 
will  describe  it  to  you  with  difficulty.  He  will  leave  nothing 
definite  ni  your  mind,  although  you  will  have  the  impression 
that  Jevons  life  is  very  vague  and  delightful.  It  has  often 
seemed  strange  to  me  how  the  freshmen  can  enjoy  themselves. 
The  freshmen  at  Jevons  are  utterly  ignored  by  the  upper 
classmen;  yet  the  freshmen  always  are  the  loudest  with 
Jevons's  praise. 

I  do  not  know  much  about  Jevons,  although  my  knowl- 
edge of  that  college  by  far  exceeds  anything  I  know  about  any 

other  college.     I  suppose  and are  just  as 

good  in  every  respect  as  the  college  I  hope  to  go  to;  but  the 
point  I  want  to  make  is  that  I  have  not  heard  as  much  about 
them.  A  relative  of  mine  went  to  Jevons  some  time  ago,  and 
to  hear  him  talk  one  would  think  Jevons  to  be  the  seventh 
heaven.     I  do  not  know  that and are  not  so 


20  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

good,  but  the  chief  reason  for  my  choosing  Jevons  is  because 
I  have  an  entliusiastic  Jevons  family. 

EXERCISE 

Write  a  theme  on  one  of  the  following  subjects  with  special 
attention  to  the  principle  of  coherence. 

1.  An  Incident  of  My  Early  School  Days. 

2.  A  Description  of  a  Fire. 

3.  The  Best  Way  to  Make  Fudge. 

4.  My  Little  Neighbor. 

5.  A  Misunderstanding. 

6.  The  Function  of  the  School  Paper. 

EMPHASIS 

A  composition  may  be  unified,  i.e.  may  say  a  single  thing, 
and  coherent,  i.e.  hold  together,  and  yet  have  its  topics  so 
ill  placed  and  its  parts  so  ill  proportioned  that  important 
items  receive  too  little  stress  and  unimportant  items  re- 
ceive too  much  stress.  That  principle  which  governs  the 
proportion  and  the  position  of  topics  in  a  composition,  we 
call  emphasis.  Its  violation  appears  in  the  following  com- 
position : 

My  Worst  Faults  i>r  English 

One  of  my  worst  faults  in  English  is  my  habitual  use  of 
slang.  I  began  to  use  slang  when  I  was  a  very  small  boy,  for 
then  I  thought  the  phrases  sounded  smart.  As  1  grew  older, 
I  found  that  the  habit  was  gaining  upon  me,  but  I  did  not 
take  it  seriously  and  even  prided  myself  ui)on  the  reputation  I 
was  gaining  in  the  versatility  of  my  cant  phrases.  Eecently, 
however,  when  by  chance  I  have  been  thrown  with  people  who 
speak  pure  English,  I  have  found  myself  sorely  hampered. 
Whenever  I  have  tried  to  express  myself,  the  slang  phrases 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  21 

intruded,  and  the  attempt  to  find  a  warranted  expression  made 
my  efforts  seem  weak  and  helpless. 

Another  fault  is  in  my  careless  composition  work.  I  always 
have  had  trouble  to  express  myself  on  paper,  and  the  poor 
grades  I  got  in  the  grammar  school  discouraged  me  so  that 
I  took  little  pride  in  my  writing.  Since  coming  to  high 
school  I  have  been  a  little  more  successful,  but  still  my 
themes  come  back  to  me  liberally  decorated  in  red.  I 
have  noticed,  however,  that  when  ,1  just  say  simply  and 
sincerely  the  things  I  have  felt,  that  somehow  I  succeed 
better. 

But  the  worst  fault  of  all  is  that  I  am  not  interested  in  read- 
ing.    I  don't  like  to  read  and  seldom  pick  up  a  book. 

Here  the  writer  has  not  devoted  to  his  three  separate 
topics  —  his  use  of  slang,  his  careless  composition  work, 
and  his  dislike  of  reading — the  relative  space  which  each 
deserves  in  the  treatment  of  the  subject.  One  of  the  serv- 
ing ideas  has  been  emphasized  beyond  its  real  worth.  By 
the  writer's  own  admission,  his  dislike  of  reading  is  his 
greatest  fault ;  yet  to  the  development  of  this  topic  he 
allots  only  a  few  lines.  In  his  preconception  of  the  entire 
theme,  he  should  have  given  to  each  division  a  space  pro- 
portionate to  its  worth.  If  the  last  item  is  the  principal 
one,  more  space  should  have  been  devoted  to  it. 

The  proper  allotment  of  space  is  not,  however,  the  only 
consideration  that  governs  the  writer.  Arrangement  of 
the  topics  is  likewise  important.  This  fact  is  based  upon 
a  sound  psychological  law.  The  beginnings  and  the  ends 
of  things  attract  special  attention.  Therefore,  the  writer 
will  remember  to  put  his  most  important  ideas  at  the  be- 
ginning and  at  the  end  of  his  compositions.  As  the  end 
is  the  stronger  of  the  two  positions,  he  will  place  here  the 
item  deserving  most  emphasis.     The  writer  of  the  com- 


22  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

position  just  examined  was  right  in  this  one  particuhar, — 
he  phiced  his  strongest  topic  at  the  end. 

We  now  see  that  emphasis  in  a  composition  is  secured 
when  the  most  important  items  receive  the  hirgest  share 
of  time  and  space  in  their  development,  when  the  least 
important  items  receive  the  smallest  share  of  time  and 
space,  and  when,  at  the  same  time,  items  of  most  signifi- 
cance are  given  positions  of  most  significance,  i.e.  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end  of  the  composition.  Putting  all 
this  in  the  form  of  a  definition,  we  may  say  that 

Emphasis  in  the  whole  composition  is  that  principle  which 
demands  that  the  parts  be  properly  proportioned  and  properly 
placed. 

EXERCISE 

Does  the  following  theme,  tvritten  hy  a  high  school  student., 
observe  the  principle  of  emphasis?  Has  the  theme  coherence? 
Does  the  theme  have  unity? 

Mp:thods  of  Settlement  Work 

Once,  when  I  was  passing  tlirougli  New  York,  my  attention 
was  called  to  the  large  number  of  ragged  little  newsboys  and 
other  children  who  were  huddled  upon  the  sidewalk  by  one  of 
the  big  buildings.  Their  poor  little  faces  were  blue  with  cold, 
and  they  all  of  them  wore  an  air  of  stolid  despair.  When  my 
companion  saw  my  interest  in  the  children,  she  told  me  some 
of  the  reasons  why  she  was  then  engaged  in  Settlement 
Work. 

Little  children  are  sent  to  work  in  factories  and  sweat  shops 
at  the  early  age  of  eight  or  ten.  They  are  denied  the  advan- 
tage of  schools,  and  after  a  long,  hard  day's  work  they  come 
home  to  a  close,  crowded  room,  where  fifteen  or  twenty  people 
live  together.     Instead  of  having  any  interest  at  home,  they 


THE   CO^fPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  23 

come  to  regard  it  as  a  mere  sleeping  place.  When  we  think  of 
the  thousands  of  poor  children  who  lead  such  a  life,  our  hearts 
cry  out  for  willing,  earnest  people  to  work  and  counteract  this 
evil. 

The  Settlement  Work  is  carried  on  in  two  ways  :  by  schools, 
and  by  sending  children  into  private  families  in  the  country. 
Schools  are  put  up  in  the  midst  of  the  tenement  sections,  and  are 
equipped  with  all  the  modern  improvements,  and  good  teachers 
are  put  in  charge.  The  night  schools  are  a  very  important 
feature  in  the  development  of  those  children  who  are  forced  to 
toil  all  day  for  their  living.  At  these  schools  they  are  taught 
to  read,  write,  figure,  and  above  all  to  love  nature.  The  boys 
are  given  lessons  in  manual  training;  the  girls  learn  sewing, 
cooking,  and  general  housekeeping.  The  effect  of  these  schools 
is  wonderful.  They  give  the  children  a  chance  to  learn  what 
it  is  to  be  orderly  and  clean,  and  it  greatly  enhances  their  self- 
respect.  They  nearly  all  have  an  instinctive  love  of  the  beau- 
tiful, although  it  is  greatly  dwarfed  and  stunted. 

Then  a  great  deal  is  done  by  sending  the  children  into  a  pri- 
vate family  in  the  country.  The  child  is  made  to  feel  that 
people  have  an  interest  in  him,  and  he  learns  by  example  in 
what  way  he  should  conduct  himself.  The  children  are  quick 
to  learn  and  very  soon  they  adopt  the  manners  and  bearing  of 
those  around  them.  Thus,  much  is  accomplished  in  every  way. 
Children  resi:)ond  quickly  to  kindness  and  are  always  anxious 
to  please.  They  will  not,  as  a  rule,  wantonly  disobey  or  injure 
anyone. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  theme  suggested  hy  sometldng  you  observed  on 
your  way  to  school  one  morning  this  term.  As  you  write  be 
careful  to  apply  the  principle  of  emphasis. 

II.  Study  the  following  themes  and  decide  if  there  is  any 
violation  of  unity,  coherence,  or  emphasis.  Indicate  other 
improvements  which  might  be  made  in  the  themes. 


24  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


Why  I  CHOSE  Brookfield  College 

"When  I  just  began  to  think  about  going  to  college,  I  sent  for 
catalogues  from  nearly  all  the  universities  and  schools  of 
higher  education  in  the  country.  After  I  had  fully  acquainted 
myself  with  catalogue  literature,  I  decided  that  it  was  time  to 
make  some  decision  about  which  college  I  should  choose. 
From  the  first  I  had  been  very  much  interested  in  the  Brook- 
field  catalogue  because  of  the  attractive  way  in  which  it  was  put 
together.  It  was  printed  on  better  jiaper,  and  had  many  pic- 
tures of  the  dormitories,  libraries,  and  different  halls,  along 
with  their  respective  plans.  From  this  I  gained  a  very  good 
idea  of  the  appearance  of  the  college  externally  and  internally. 
Then  making  a  comparative  study  of  the  requirements  for 
each  college  as  put  forth  in  the  catalogue,  I  liked  the  require- 
ments for  Brookfield  very  much  better  than  those  for  any 
other  college.  Brookfield  requires  a  preparation  more  clas- 
sical than  scientific,  and  especially  emphasizes  the  languages. 
While  many  colleges  consider  four  years  of  Latin  all  the  lan- 
guage study  essential  for  admission,  and  the  other  colleges,  in 
addition  to  the  Latin  requirement,  two  years  of  a  modern 
language,  Brookfield  requires  four  years  of  Latin  and  four 
years  of  two  of  the  three  languages,  Greek,  French,  and  Ger- 
man. But  what  I  like  most  about  the  requirements  is  the  fact 
that  the  college  will  take  no  certificate  that  you  have  studied 
certain  subjects,  but  insists  that  every  one  pass  an  examina- 
tion in  them.  I  feel  that,  in  this  way,  people  who  go  to 
college  because  they  think  that  it  is  the  thing  to  do,  are  kept 
out. 

Further,  I  admire  the  college  itself.  Brookfield  stands 
absolutely  for  student  government.  As  I  think  that  this 
should  be  the  case  in  all  colleges,  it  naturally  influenced  my 
choice.  Also  I  am  an  advocate  of  the  lecture  system,  which 
has  been  adopted  at  Brookfield  in  all  the  courses  where  it  is 
possible. 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  25 

How    I    BECAME    INTERESTED    IN    ChARITY 

Few  people  realize  what  true  charity  is.  The  majority  say, 
"  I  would  be  charitable  if  I  had  the  means,"  but  those  who 
have  the  means  have  not  the  time. 

Not  a  long  time  ago  I  found  myself  noiselessly  tiptoeing  up 
the  broad  stairs  of  the  children's  hospital.  I  entered  one  of 
the  wards ;  before  me  lay  several  long  lines  of  white  cots.  As 
I  passed  along  the  aisle,  I  gazed  at  the  faces  of  some  of  the 
little  sufferers.  Each  seemed  to  tell  its  own  story  of  pain  and 
hard  luck.  When  I  spoke  and  smiled,  their  eyes  brightened, 
and  a  change  came  to  them  like  a  ray  of  sunshine.  Since  that 
beautiful  day  I  have  changed  my  views  of  charity.  I  have 
found  it  can  be  accomplished  without  wealth,  without  labor, 
and  without  the  loss  of  much  time. 

How    I    BECAME    INTERESTED    IN    THE    ShUT-IN    SoCIETY 

On  a  hot  summer  evening  two  years  ago  I  was  sitting  on  the 
front  porch  of  one  of  my  friends.  There  were  several  other 
young  people  there,  and  we  had  been  chattering  as  only  girls 
can.  All  at  once  one  of  the  girls  mentioned  a  new  society  she 
was  very  much  interested  in.  We  all,  of  course,  wanted  to 
know  what  it  was.  Then  she  explained  that  it  was  a  different 
one  from  any  that  we  all  imagined. 

The  Shut-in  Society,  she  explained,  was  composed  of  very  poor 
people  who  were  invalids,  and  also  of  associates.  These  asso- 
ciates were  kind  people  of  means,  who  took  some  "shut-in"  and 
wrote  to  him,  besides  sending  him  little  gifts  at  Christmas  and 
birthdays.  The  dues  were  one  dollar  a  year,  and  this  also  entitled 
one  to  the  society's  little  magazine  called  Tlie  Open  Window. 

While  my  friend  was  telling  about  the  Shut.in  Work,  I  was 
busily  thinking  how  I  should  like  to  have  one.  I  love  children 
and  have  them  around  me  wherever  I  go.  If  I  were  to  take  a 
"  shut-in,"  I  wanted  a  little  girl.     So  when  the  time  came  for 


26  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

us  to  pick  out  some  poor  unfortunate  person  to  make  happy,  I 
picked  out  a  little  girl  living  in  iSTorth  Carolina.  The  others 
took  men  and  women,  long  out  of  their  'teens.  When  we  left 
the  friend's  home  that  evening,  we  promised  each  other  to 
write  every  two  weeks  to  our  Shut-ins,  besides  sending  them 
old  magazines,  books,  clothing,  and  other  useful  things. 

Not  only  \iseful  things  found  their  way  to  my  little  friend 
in  the  South.  The  preparing  of  the  Christmas  box  for  her 
has  always  been  one  of  my  greatest  pleasures.  This  box  not 
only  contains  toys,  but  also  little  necessities,  such  as  handker- 
chiefs, stockings,  and  clothing.  Another  feature  connected 
with  the  work  which  I  like  is  the  receiving  of  little  letters 
now  and  then  from  my  little  "  Shut-in."  They  are  usually  so 
pitiful.  I  have  now  been  writing  to  my  little  girl  two  years, 
and  not  for  a  minute  have  I  regretted  the  taking  of  a  "  Shut- 
in  "  that  warm  summer  night. 

How  TO  Hemstitch  a  Tablecloth 

In  hemstitching  a  tablecloth  one  cannot  be  too  careful  in 
the  choice  of  the  linen ;  I  know  that  some  of  the  most  careful 
hemstitching  in  itself  loses  its  beauty  by  the  thoughtless  selec- 
tion of  the  damask.  Then,  also,  it  is  a  loss  of  time  to  hem- 
stitch a  poor,  cheap  piece  of  cloth  for  the  simple  reason  that 
it  does  not  wear  well.  One  should  always  be  careful  that  the 
so-called  linen  is  linen,  not  partly  linen  and  partly  cotton.  A 
piece  with  an  artistic  pattern  should  also  be  chosen. 

Having  duly  considered  all  these  points  in  purchasing  the 
damask,  one  is  ready  to  begin  on  the  work  itself.  Be  sure  to 
put  on  a  fresh,  white  apron  as  a  safeguard  against  unnecessary 
soil  of  the  cloth.  Every  neat  housekeei)er  is  mindful  of  this 
fact.  One  should  have-the  scissors,  thimble,  thread,  and  every- 
thing ready  before  sitting  down  to  begin.  The  next  thing  to 
do  is  to  trim  both  ends  of  the  cloth  so  that  they  will  be 
straight,  for  in  his  hurry  the  salesman  invariably  cuts  crooked. 
Now  one  must  decide  on  the  width  of  the  hem,  then  pull  the 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  27 

first  thread  on  one  end.  Then  it  seems  to  me  the  most  sensible 
to  count  the  threads  in  that  hem,  and  turning  to  the  other  end 
of  the  tablecloth  count  a  like  number  and  pull  the  first  thread 
there.  In  this  way  one  cannot  help  getting  the  hems  of  the 
same  width.  Then  the  threads  can  be  pulled  out,  one  by 
one,  and  counted  as  they  are  pulled  out.  This  will  be  a  good 
way  to  get  the  hemstitched  part  the  same  width  on  each  end. 
One  should  also  be  very  careful  not  to  throw  a  single  thread  on 
the  floor.  In  the  sewing  itself,  a  definite  number  of  threads 
should  be  caught  each  time,  a  smooth,  even  hemstitch  result- 
ing. One  should  also  be  very  particular  to  catch  the  hem, 
which  has  previously  been  turned  in  and  creased  firmly,  at  each 
stitch.  This  may  be  somewhat  tedious  to  do,  if  the  hem  has 
not  been  basted  neatly.  Therefore  it  seems  to  me  the  best  plan 
to  do  this  before  starting  to  hemstitch.  I  might  also  mention 
a  minor  point  which  will  aid  greatly  in  keeping  the  damask 
clean,  that  of  folding  and  pinning  the  end  upon  which  one  is 
not  working.  It  may  seem  foolish  to  some  to  be  so  careful  in 
keeping  the  cloth  from  being  soiled  when  it  is  to  be  laundered 
before  use  ;  yet  I  may  assure  you  it  is  of  vast  importance,  as 
it  teaches  neatness  and  care.  I  believe  if  all  these  directions 
be  followed,  a  beautifully  hemstitched  tablecloth  will  be  the 

result. 

"  Sallie  " 

Note  that  part  of  the  incoherence  in  this  composition  results  from  a 
confusion  of  the  child's  point 'of  view  with  that  of  the  writer. 

Although  she  was  a  builder  of  air-castles  —  her  Uncle  Joe 
called  her  a  "  reg'lar  professnal  planner  " —  she  was  only  a  fat 
little  country  girl  with  freckles  and  straight  hair.  She  lived 
with  her  Uncle  Joe  and  Aunt  Mattie  on  a  big  farm  where  pigs 
and  cows  and  other  commonplace  things  were  grown.  She  had 
many  stints,  all  of  which  she  heartily  detested,  but  the  duty 
which  she  hated  most  was  washing  dishes. 

One  day  when  the  last  skillet  was  dried  and  put  away,  she 
ran  away  to  the  peach  orchard,  before  her  aunt  could  assign 


28  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

another  task.  She  crossed  the  little  lot  witli  sunflowers  at  the 
end,  climbed  over  the  rail  fence,  sli])ped  under  the  wire  one, 
and  was  there.  Away  from  the  region  of  pots  and  pans  and 
chickens  and  pigs  and  quilts  to  piece,  here  she  was  in  another 
world.  An  old  hammock  of  barrel  hoops  made  by  Uncle  Joe 
for  "little  big-eyes"  stretched  between  two  of  the  largest 
trees.  This  was  the  girl's  favorite  place  in  all  the  world. 
The  trees  were  in  bloom,  —  a  carpet  of  ])ink  and  a  sky  of  pink. 
Here  she  planned  her  most  beautiful  things. 

*'  She  was  a  princess,  suddenly  grown  tall  and  slender,  and 
her  hair  fell  in  long  yellow  curls.  She  wore  a  dress  of  pink 
satin,  embroidered  in  pearls.  She  lived  in  a  beautiful  gray 
castle — " 

*'  Sallie,"  called  a  voice. 

"  That  sounds  like  somebody  calling  me,"  thought  the  girl, 
"  but  maybe  it's  not."  On  the  strength  of  the  doubt,  she  put 
her  fingers  into  her  ears  and  went  on  with  her  story  —  "a 
beautiful  gray  castle  with  side  lawns  which  dip  down  to  a 
little  laughing  brook ;  close  by  the  castle  a  gai'den  full  of 
wonderful  flowers,  and  she,  Sallie, .  or  rather  Kosemonde, 
coming  slowly  down  the  side  marble  steps,  her  train  sweeping 
carelessly  behind  her,  with  no  thought  of  the  wise  inventions 
of  dust  ruflles  and  such  like.  By  her  side  came  a  greyhound 
and  in  the  garden  strutted  gorgeous  peacocks. 

"  Her  golden  hair  was  caught  with  a  comb  of  pearls ;  her 
little  pink  slippers  had  real  pearl  buckles ;  she  stooped  to  pick 
a  pale  pink  flower  to  wind  in  her  hair  — "  Suiting  the  action  to 
the  word  Sallie  reached  far  out  to  catch  a  falling  blossom. 
Her  ear  unguarded  heard  again  the  call,  "  Sallie,  0  Sal-1-lie." 

She  brushed  the  petals  from  her  dress  and  ran  across  the 
orchard,  under  the  Avire  fence,  over  the  wood,  to  her  aunt. 

"  Child,  you  must  be  deaf  as  a  post,"  said  that  lady.  "  I've 
been  calling  an  hour.     Be  lively  now,  and  peel  some  potatoes." 

"  Yes,  ma'am,"  said  Sallie,  meekly,  but  she  was  gazing  over 
the  wall  of  a  wonderful  garden  very  longingly.     She  was  sure 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  29 

a  beautiful  prince  with  a  big  sword  would  have  met  her  then 
if  her  aunt  had  only  given  him  time. 

Ways  of  Eeading 

If  language  is  the  art  of  concealing  thought,  then  reading 
is  the  art  of  unearthing  it;  and  if  the  chief  end  of  man  is  to 
think,  then  the  art  which  gives  him  access  to  the  greatest 
thoughts  that  have  arisen  in  the  world,  and  which  stimulates 
him  to  thoughts  of  his  own,  is  of  the  first  importance.  Read- 
ing, then,  is  not  merely  a  means  of  study ;  it  should  be  made 
a  study  in  itself.  One  of  the  first  things  which  the  reader 
observes,  who  studies  his  method  of  work,  is  that  the  work 
is  done  in  many  ways. 

It  is  possible  for  his  eyes  to  follow  the  words,  or  even  for 
his  lips  to  repeat  them,  while,  by  some  abstraction  of  the 
mind,  the  action  becomes  wholly  reflex ;  the  words  pass  from 
eye  to  tongue  by  another  route  than  that  of  the  conscious  re- 
ception and  expression  of  ideas.  Suddenly  finding  myself 
in  this  state,  I  sometimes  have  been  able  to  run  after  the 
words  that  have  left  me,  to  bring  them  back  and  make  them 
deliver  the  idea  they  were  bearing  away,  having  found  no 
place  to  receive  it. 

If  this  is  somewhat  uncommon,  not  so  the  next  step  in  the 
progression.  Here  the  mind  is  aware  of  what  it  is  doing; 
each  word  deposits  on  the  reader's  consciousness  the  idea 
which  belongs  to  that  combination  of  signs.  But  the  mind  is 
possessed  with  lethargy,  and  is  slow  to  assimilate ;  effort  is 
required  for  the  mind  to  take  in  as  a  part  of  its  own  sub- 
stance, permeated  with  its  own  life  blood,  a  new  idea  of  some 
complexity.  Such  effort  is  always  made  against  a  certain 
mental  inertia,  and  therefore  in  this  type  of  reading  is  not 
made  at  all.  The  attitude  of  passive  reception,  not  active  ex- 
amination, is  sufficient  to  realize  that  "  The  cat  chases  the 
rat,"  but  not  to  comprehend  that  "  The  gravitational  attrac- 


30  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

tion  between  two  bodies  varies  inversely  as  the  square  of  the 
distance  between  them." 

The  reader's  labor  need  be  little  if  he  rests  from  it,  having 
read  the  newspaper  and  the  novel.  But  the  student,  while 
he  bears  that  name,  must  be  a  person  of  zeal.  If  such,  he  is 
not  satisfied  to  contemplate  a  mental  picture;  he  must  grapple 
with  difficult  thoughts ;  he  must  smelt  dark  statements,  and 
sweat  in  his  search  for  the  gold. 

Having  found  it,  he  can  truly  say  that  he  has  read  his  author. 
But  this  should  not  be  the  end.  The  man  is  dead  who  has 
filled  himself,  like  an  empty  vessel,  with  the  thoughts  of 
others,  and  has  wrought  out  none  of  his  own.  He  has  com- 
mitted suicide.  His  brain  is  swept  and  garnished ;  its  inhal> 
itants,  aliens.  His  own  thoughts  may  be  crude  and  mistaken, 
but  only  by  them  can  he  grow.  If  all  men  were  cast  in  the 
same  mold,  then  should  we  select  our  benevolent  autocrat  and 
have  him  do  our  thinking  for  us.  Society  is  advancing  from 
the  rule  of  one  man  over  all  to  the  rule  of  each  man  over  him- 
self. As  said  the  old  poet,  "  My  mind  to  me  a  kingdom  is," 
a  kingdom  whose  "  administrative  entity "  we  should  allow 
not  the  greatest  philosopher  that  ever  lived  to  violate.  Having 
read,  we  should  not  build  what  we  have  gained  into  a  shrine 
for  our  author,  but  should  make  it  only  the  foundation  for  a 
structure  of  our  own. 

The  four  ways  are  a  progression,  from  mechanical  word  fol- 
lowing, not  to  be  called  reading,  through  the  open-mouthed 
attitude  which  sits  listlessly  to  receive  and  is  unwilling  to 
masticate,  to  the  real  searching  among  words,  and  finally  to 
the  "  creative  reading  "  of  Emerson,  where  the  received  idea 
grows  in  the  mind,  a  native  ])roduct  there. 

Ej.rows 

When  Pandora  opened  her  box  of  troubles,  one  insect  flew 
out  that  has  never  received  its  proper  place  in  the  expansive 
field  of  literature.     This  was  the  insect  of  the  evil  elbow. 


TPIE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  31 

The  woeful  neglect  that  this  insect  has  received  at  the  hands 
of  literary  geniuses  was  particularly  impressed  upon  me  yes- 
terday afternoon.  I  was  on  a  crowded  car,  and  the  woman 
sitting  next  to  me  seemed  to  think  that  I  was  personally  re- 
sponsible for  the  condition  of  the  car.  She  was  all  points 
and  corners.  Her  chin  was  a  corner;  her  nose  was  a  point; 
her  eyes  were  slits  through  which  gleamed  two  sparks  of  clear 
cold  gray ;  and  her  hair  looked  as  if  it  had  been  drawn  back 
with  a  derrick.  There  was  positively  no  incongruity  about  her 
appearance,  for  her  dress  was  black  alpaca  —  the  real  stiff, 
shiny  kind,  and  very  scant.  But  the  crowning  feature  of  her 
make-up  were  her  elbows  ;  and  she  seemed  to  be  fully  aware  of 
this  fact.  I  could  scarcely  say  her  elbows  were  points;  they 
felt  more  like  angles  —  angles  of  about  fifteen  degrees.  She 
used  them  as  a  gimlet,  and  only  stopped  when  her  passage  was 
obstructed  by  the  innocent  bone  in  my  own.  Then  the  vicious 
jab  she  gave  when  she  could  go  no  farther,  made  me  wish 
that  I  was  a  snake  or  some  other  horrible  animal  with  no  bones. 
I  used  to  believe  that  character  was  revealed  most  strongly 
by  the  eyes,  but  I  have  changed  my  opinion  since  yesterday. 
Certainly  the  elbow  is  the  surest  way  of  revealing  character; 
but  for  all  practical  purposes,  hereafter  I  am  perfectly  willing 
to  judge  a  person  inaccurately  by  his  eyes  rather  thau  to  judge 
him  more  accurately  by  his  elbows. 

Jim's  Luck 

Jim  was  growing  restless.  As  he  sat  tailor  fashion  before 
the  roaring  camp-fire,  and  listened  to  the  tame  fish  and  snake 
stories  which  his  comrades  were  telling,  he  tried  to  recall  from 
his  own  experience,  or  to  evolve  from  his  imagination,  some 
unusual  story,  which  would  put  to  shame  the  hackneyed  ac- 
counts of  monstrous  snakes  which  had  been  mistaken  for  huge 
logs,  and  of  strange  fish  which  had  been  caught  but  never 
landed. 


32  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

Suddenly,  to  liis  great  relief,  he  remembered  a  fish  story 
which  his  father  had  once  told  him.  Without  the  slightest 
twinge  of  conscience,  Jim  decided  not  only  to  appropriate  the 
story  and  tell  it  as  his  own,  but  to  make  himself  the  hero  of  it. 

At  last  when  it  came  his  time  to  tell  his  story,  he  arose,  gave 
the  now  sleepy  fire  a  vigorous  poke,  leaned  against  an  old  tree 
trunk,  and,  with  a  feeling  of  secret  satisfaction  over  the  envy 
which  he  was  about  to  create  began  : 

''  About  ten  years  ago,  a  party  of  boys  from  our  town  spent 
a  week  in  camp,  near  a  small  stream,  which  was  noted  for  its 
lack  of  good  fish.  In  spite  of  the  scarcity  of  fish,  the  boys 
spent  most  of  their  time  angling  for  bass,  and  catching  nothing 
but  a  few  catfish  and  minnows. 

"  These  the  boys  dressed  and  served  at  each  meal ;  for  it 
had  been  agreed  among  the  campers  that  every  fish  caught 
must  be  eaten.  It  had  furthermore  been  agreed  that  any 
member  of  the  party  who  should  make  complaint  about  the 
way  in  which  the  fish  had  been  cooked,  or  about  the  manner 
in  which  it  was  served,  should  pay  the  penalty  of  his  grumbling 
by  acting  as  cook  for  the  following  meal.  You  may  be  sure 
that  no  one  complained  about  the  fish,  although,  before  the 
middle  of  the  week,  every  one  was  tired  of  seeing  it  come  on 
the  table. 

"  Well,  toward  the  end  of  the  week,  I  decided  to  run  down 
to  camp  just  to  see  how  the  boys  were  getting  along.  The 
lads  gave  me  a  hearty  welcome,  and  expatiated,  with  much 
enthusiasm,  upon  the  jolly  time  they  had  been  having.  But 
when  I  asked  them  how  many  and  how  large  were  the  fish 
they  had  caught,  they  looked  crest-fallen,  and  had  little  to 
say.  At  length,  however,  they  admitted  that  they  had  caught 
only  a  few  insignitica-ut  little  Hsli,  although  they  had  kept  their 
lines  busy  from  morning  until  night,  and  had  exhausted  all 
their  bait  trying  to  catch  a  trout  or  a  bass.  They  all  declared 
that  there  was  nothing  in  that  stream  but  tiny  minnows  and 
ugly  catfish,  and  that  there  was  no  use  to  waste  any  more 
angleworms. 


THE   COMPOSITION   AS   A   WHOLE  33 

"  In  a  spirit  of  fun,  I  told  the  boys,  with  a  great  show  of 
assurance,  that  the  stream  was  full  of  bass  which  could  easily 
be  caught  by  one  who  knew  how  to  cast  his  line  properly. 
The  boys,  in  a  bantering  manner,  laughingly  demanded  that  I 
prove  my  statement,  and  that  I  '  teach  them  how.' 

"Although  I  had  not  expected  to  be  called  on  to  make  good  my 
boast,  and  although  I  was  inwardly  daunted,  I  seized  the  line, 
and,  with  a  dexterous  throw,  which  was  intended  to  impress 
the  boys  with  my  peculiar  skill,  cast  it  far  out  into  the  stream. 

"In  a  few  seconds  I  felt  something  pull  on  my  line.  With 
a  quick  jerk,  I  raised  the  rod,  and  there,  dangling  from  the 
hook,  was  an  eight-pound  bass  —  the  finest  fellow  I  ever  savv. 

"For  the  first  time  in  my  life  I  was  a  hero;  not  even  Caesar 
himself  was  greater ;  for  in  a  few  seconds  I  had  accomplished 
without  effort  what  the  boys  had  failed  to  bring  about  in  a 
whole  week.  But  I  knew  that  if  I  remained  in  camp  longer, 
my  glory  would  be  short-lived ;  the  boys  would  demand  a 
repetition  of  the  feat,  and  I,  of  course,  would  be  sure  to  fail. 
So,  after  giving  the  boys  detailed  directions  for  catching  bass, 
telling  them  just  how  to  hold  the  rod,  and  just  how  far  out  in 
the  stream  to  cast  the  line,  I  hastily  departed. 

"  And  now  comes  the  remarkable  part  of  my  story.  The  fol- 
lowing day  I  ran  down  to  camp  again,  hoping  that  the  boys 
might  have  forgotten  the  experience  of  the  day  before.  But 
they  had  not  forgotten;  I  had  no  sooner  reached  the  camp 
than  they  began  to  entreat  me  to  try  my  skill  again.  They 
said  that  they  had  followed  my  directions  to  the  letter,  but 
that  they  had  not  caught  a  single  bass. 

"  With  a  sinking  heart  and  with  visions  of  lost  glory  before 
me,  I  again  seized  the  line  with  an  air  of  confidence,  again  cast  it 
far  out  into  the  stream,  again  drew  up  —  an  eight-pound  bass." 

As  Jim  finished  his  story  and  sat  down,  there  was  a  green 
look  of  envy  in  every  eye  about  him ;  but  Jim  was  happy  and 
triumphant ;  he  was  now  for  the  first  time  a  real  hero,  for  he 
had  told  the  best  fish  story. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE 

A  paragraph  is  a  group  of  closely  related  sentences  bear- 
ing upon  one  topic. 

This  topic  may  constitute  the  master  idea  of  a  complete 
theme,  as  in  the  isolated  paragraph ;  or,  as  in  the  related 
paragraph,  it  may  be  subordinate  to  a  larger  idea  which 
demands  for  its  full  development  a  group  of  paragraphs. 
Whether  the  paragraph  be  an  isolated  one,  giving  a  com- 
prehensive treatment  of  a  limited  subject,  or  whether  it 
be  one  of  a  group,  developing  a  topic  subordinate  to  the 
larger  one  of  the  whole  composition,  it  must  have  a  definite 
topic  of  its  own  to  which  all  tlie  other  ideas  are  subordi- 
nate ;  and  this  master  idea  must  stand  out  clearly  from 
the  serving  ideas. 

The  topic  sentence  in  a  paragraph  is  that  sentence  which 
states  definitely  the  topic,  or  the  master  idea  of  the  para- 
graph. 

Often  a  topic  sentence  appears  at  the  beginning  of  a 
paragraph.  Sometimes,  however,  the  statement  of  the 
topic  is  reserved  for  a  subsequent  sentence  of  the  para- 
graph. 

Many  paragraplis  do  not  have  distinct  topic  sentences. 
In  such  cases  the  master  idea  of  the  paragraph  appears  in 
the  relation  of  the  sentences  to  that  idea.     In  a  paragraph 

34 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  35 

skillfully  developed,  unified  and  coherent,  there  will  be 
little  or  no  difficulty  in  understanding  the  central  point. 

The  chief  purpose  of  the  topic  sentence  is  to  serve  as  a 
check  upon  the  writer  in  preventing  digression,  and  as  a 
guide  to  the  reader  in  giving  him  clearly  the  writer's 
point  of  view.  In  narration  and  in  description,  which  deal 
with  concrete  objects,  the  need  of  a  topic  sentence  is 
rarely  felt  either  by  the  writer  or  by  the  reader;  but 
in  exposition  and  in  argument,  which  deal  with  the 
unfolding  or  elucidation  of  ideas,  the  need  of  the  topic 
sentence  is  well-nigh  imperative. 

Indention.  —  Indention  is  the  term  to  indicate  a  mechani- 
cal device  for  calling  attention  to  the  paragraph.  It  con- 
sists in  setting  in,  one  inch,  more  or  less,  from  the  left- 
hand  margin  of  the  page,  the  first  word  of  the  paragraph. 
Though  the  device  itself  is  mechanical,  the  principle 
governing  its  application  is  vital.  Its  proper  use  depends 
upon  the  recognition  that  a  true  paragraph  is  a  unified, 
coherent  group  of  sentences  developing  a  single  topic,  or 
master  idea.  The  number  of  indentions  in  any  whole 
composition  is  determined  by  the  number  of  ideas  whicli 
are  of  sufficient  importance  in  the  composition  to  demand 
development.  Whether  or  not  the  idea  demands  special 
development  depends  altogether  upon  the  writer's  pur- 
pose. In  the  following  selection  from  Irving,  for 
example,  the  reader  can  plainly  see  that  Irving  wishes  to 
make  clear  the  beauty  and  the  joyousness  of  the  day  upon 
which  Ichabod  was  making  his  journey  to  the  home  of 
Katrina  Van  Tassel.  The  part  which  the  birds  contribute 
toward  making  the  day  an  ideal  day,  Irving  considers  im- 
portant enough  to  be  treated  in  a  separate  paragraph. 
Now,  had  he  not  wished  to  give  a  description  of  the  differ- 
ent birds  found  in  this  locality,  he  might  have  made  use 


36  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

of  them  as  a  single  detail  in  the  preceding  paragraph.  He 
might,  for  instance,  have  used  in  the  first  paragraph  a 
single  sentence  about  the  revelry  of  the  birds, — thus 
making  them  contribute  no  more  to  the  tliought  of  a  fine 
day  than  the  other  details  of  the  first  paragraph.  But  a 
large  part  of  Irving's  purpose  in  the  entire  sketch  from 
which  the  selection  is  taken  is  to  describe  the  region  of 
Sleepy  Hollow.  With  this  purpose  in  mind,  he  gives  to 
the  birds,  as  an  important  part  of  that  region,  a  separate 
paragraph. 

It  was,  as  I  have  said,  a  fine,  autumnal  day ;  the  sky  was 
clear  and  serene,  and  nature  wore  that  rich  and  golden  livery 
which  we  always  associate  with  the  idea  of  abundance.  The 
forests  had  put  on  their  sober  brown  and  yellow,  while  some 
trees  of  the  tenderer  kind  had  been  nipped  by  the  frosts  into 
brilliant  dyes  of  orange,  purple,  and  scarlet.  Streaming  files 
of  wild  ducks  began  to  make  their  appearance  high  in  the  air ; 
the  bark  of  the  squirrel  might  be  heard  from  the  groves  of 
beech  and  hickory  nuts,  and  the  pensive  whistle  of  the  quail  at 
intervals  from  the  neighboring  stubble  field. 

The  small  birds  were  taking  their  farewell  banquets.  In  the 
fullness  of  their  revelry,  they  fluttered,  chirping  and  frolicking, 
from  bush  to  bush,  and  tree  to  tree,  capricious  from  the  very 
profusion  and  variety  around  them.  There  was  the  honest 
cock  robin,  the  favorite  game  of  stripling  sportsmen,  with  its 
loud,  querulous  note ;  and  the  twittering  blackbirds  flying  in 
sable  clouds ;  and  the  golden-winged  woodpecker,  with  his 
crimson  crest,  his  broad,  black  gorget,  and  splendid  plumage ; 
and  the  cedar  bird,  with  its  red-tipt  wings  and  yellow-tipt  tail, 
and  its  monteiro  cap  of  feathers ;  and  the  blue  jay,  that  noisy 
coxcomb,  in  his  gay  light  blue  coat  and  white  underclothes ; 
screaming  and  chattering,  nodding  and  bobbing  and  bowing, 
and  pretending  to  be  on  good  terms  with  every  songster  of  the 
grove.  — Irving  :  Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow. 


THE  PARAGRAPFI  AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  37 

In  conversation,  each  new  speech,  each  separate  com- 
ment of  the  writer  who  is  relating  the  conversation,  is 
indented.  Note  the  indention  in  the  following  conver- 
sation: 

Here  a  general  shout  burst  from  the  bystanders  —  "A  tory  ! 
a  spy  !  a  refugee  !  hustle  him  !  away  with  him  ! "  It  was  with 
great  difficulty  that  the  self-important  man  in  the  cocked  hat 
restored  order ;  and,  having  assumed  a  tenfold  austerity  of 
brow,  demanded  again  of  the  unknown  culprit,  what  he  came 
for,  and  whom  he  was  seeking.  The  poor  man  humbly  as- 
sured him  that  he  meant  no  harm,  but  merely  came  there  in 
search  of  some  of  his  neighbors,  who  used  to  keep  about  the 
tavern. 

"  Well  —  who  are  they  ?  —  name  them." 

Rip  bethought  himself  a  moment,  and  inquired,  ''Where's 
Nicholas  Vedder?" 

There  was  a  silence  for  a  little  while,  when  an  old  man 
replied,  in  a  thin,  piping  voice,  "  Nicholas  Vedder !  why,  he  is 
dead  and  gone  these  eighteen  years !  There  was  a  wooden 
tombstone  in  the  churchyard  that  used  to  tell  all  about  him, 
but  that's  rotten  and  gone,  too." 

"Where's  Brom  Dutcher  ?" 

"Oh,  he  went  off  to  the  wars,  too;  was  a  great  militia 
general,  and  is  now  in  Congress." 

Rip's  heart  died  away  at  hearing  of  these  sad  changes 
in  his  home  and  friends,  and  finding  himself  thus  alone 
in  the  world.  Every  answer  puzzled  him,  too,  by  treating 
of  siich  enormous  lapses  of  time,  and  of  matters  which  he 
could  not  understand ;  war  —  Congress  —  Stony  Point ;  —  he 
had  no  courage  to  ask  after  any  more  friends,  but  cried 
out  in  despair,  "Does  nobody  know  Rip  Van  Winkle?" 

"  Oh,  Rip  Van  Winkle ! "  exclaimed  two  or  three.  "  Oh, 
to  be  sure !  that's  Rip  Van  Winkle  yonder,  leaning  against 
the  tree."  —Irving  :  Bip  Van  Winkle. 


38  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

What  is  the  topic,  or  master  idea,  in  each  of  the  folloiving 
'paragraphs  ?  Can  you  see  the  hearing  of  each  sentence  upon 
the  master  idea  in  the  paragraph'^  Do  you  find  a  topic 
sentence  in  each  paragraph?  When  a  paragraph  contains 
no  topic  sentence,  how  do  you  get  the  master  idea? 

He  was,  in  fact,  an  odd  mixture  of  small  shrewdness  and 
simple  credulity.  His  appetite  for  the  marvelous,  and  his 
powers  of  digesting  it,  were  equally  extraordinary;  and  both 
had  been  increased  by  his  residence  in  this  spell-bound  region. 
No  tale  was  too  gross  or  monstrous  for  his  capacious  swallow. 
It  was  often  his  delight,  after  his  school  was  dismissed,  in  the 
afternoon,  to  stretch  himself  on  the  rich  bed  of  clover  border- 
ing the  little  brook  that  wdiimpered  by  his  schoolhouse,  and 
there  con  over  old  Mather's  direful  tales,  until  the  gathering 
dusk  of  the  evening  made  the  printed  page  a  mere  mist  before 
his  eyes.  Then,  as  he  wended  his  way,  by  swamp  and  stream 
and  awful  wpodland,  to  the  farmhouse  where  he  happened  to 
be  quartered,  every  sound  of  nature,  at  that  witching  hour, 
fluttered  his  excited  imagination:  the  moan  of  the  whip-poor- 
will  from  the  hillside;  the  boding  cry  of  the  tree  toad,  that 
harbinger  of  the  storm;  the  drcniry  hooting  of  the  screech  owl, 
or  the  sudden  rustling  in  the  thicket  of  birds  frightened  from 
their  roost.  The  fireflies,  too,  which  sparkled  most  vividly  in 
the  darkest  places,  now  and  then  startled  him,  as  one  of 
uncommon  brightness  would  stream  across  his  path ;  and  if,  by 
chance,  a  huge  blockhead  of  a  beetle  came  winging  his  blunder- 
ing flight  against  him,  the  poor  varlet  was  ready  to  give  up  the 
ghost,  with  the  idea  that  he  was  struck  with  a  witch's  token. 
His  only  resource  on  such  occasions,  either  to  drown  thought, 
or  drive  away  evil  spirits,  was  to- sing  psalm  tunes  ;  —  and  the 
good  people  of  Sleepy  Hollow,  as  they  sat  by  their  doors  of  an 
evening,  were  often  filled  with  awe,  at  hearing  his  nasal  melody, 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     39 

''  in  linked  sweetness  long  drawn  out,"  floating  from  the  distant 
hill,  or  along  the  dusty  road.     — Irving  :  Legend  of  Sleepy  Holloio. 

The  good  are  befriended  even  by  weakness  and  defect.  As 
no  man  had  ever  a  point  of  pride  that  was  not  injurious  to  him, 
so  no  man  had  ever  a  defect  that  was  not  somewhere  made  use- 
ful to  him.  The  stag  in  the  fable  admired  his  horns  and 
blamed  his  feet;  but  Avhen  the  hunter  came,  his  feet  saved  him, 
and  afterwards,  caught  in  the  thicket,  his  horns  destroyed  him. 
Every  man  in  his  lifetime  needs  to  thank  his  faults.  As  no 
man  thoroughly  understands  a  truth  until  first  he  has  con- 
tended against  it,  so  no  man  has  a  thorougli  acquaintance  with 
the  hindrances  of  talents  of  men,  uutil  he  has  suffered  from  the 
one,  and  seen  the  triumph  of  the  other  over  his  own  want  of 
the  same.  Has  he  a  defect  of  temper  that  unfits  him  to  live  in 
society  ?  Thereby  he  is  driven  to  entertain  himself  alone,  and 
acquire  habits  of  self-help ;  and  thus,  like  the  wounded  oyster, 
he  mends  his  shell  with  pearl.  —Emerson:  Compensation. 

In  associating  with  the  true  and  the  wise,  we  are  most  likely 
to  be  happy  and  useful.  How  are  we  to  secure  such  associa- 
tion ?  Few  of  us  can  be  admitted  to  the  higher  circles  of 
human  intelligence  among  the  living  men  and  women  of  our 
own  day ;  but,  while  we  vainly  covet  an  audience  with  queens 
and  princes,  with  men  of  science  and  great  poets,  we  sometimes 
Overlook  the  fact  that  the  best  thought  of  the  princely  minds 
of  all  ages  is  offered  to  us,  and  is  waiting  patiently  for  our 
listening  ear.  Hidden  behind  the  covers  of  books  we  may  find 
the  best  expression  of  the  deepest  thought  of  the  wise.  But 
there  are  books  and  books  ;  it  is  essential  to  distinguish. 

—  Rcskin:  Sesame  and  Lilies. 

In  all  that  I  endured  there  was  no  physical  suffering,  but 
of  moral  distress  an  infinitude.  My  fancy  grew  charuel.  I 
talked  "  of  worms,  of  tombs,  of  epitaphs."  I  was  lost  in  rev- 
eries of  death,  and  the  idea  of  premature  burial  held  continual 
possession  of  my  brain.     The  ghastly  danger  to  which  I  was 


40  COiMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

subjected  haunted  me  day  and  night.  In  the  former  the  toiv 
ture  of  meditation  was  excessive:  in  the  latter,  supreme. 
^\'hen  the  grim  darkness  overspread  the  earth,  then,  with  very 
horror  of  thought  I  shook — sliook  as  the  quivering  plumes 
upon  the  hearse.  When  nature  could  endure  wakefulness  no 
longer,  it  was  with  a  struggle  that  I  consented  to  sleep  —  for  I 
shuddered  to  reflect  that,  upon  awakening,  1  might  find  myself 
the  tenant  of  a  grave.  And  when  finally  I  sank  into  slumber, 
it  was  only  to  rush  at  once  into  a  world  of  phantasms,  above 
which,  with  vast,  sable,  overshadowing  wings,  hovered  predom- 
inant the  one  sepulchral  idea.        — Tok  :   The  Premature  Burial. 

We  learn  from  the  result  of  this  experiment  how  fortunate 
was  our  own  condition  and  how  admirably  the  character  of  our 
people  was  calculated  for  setting  the  great  example  of  popular 
governments.  The  possession  of  power  did  not  turn  the  heads 
of  the  American  people,  for  they  had  long  been  in  the  habit  of 
exercising  a  great  degree  of  self-control.  Although  the  para- 
mount authority  of  the  parent  state  existed  over  them,  yet  a 
large  field  of  legislation  had  always  been  open  to  our  Colonial 
assemblies.  They  were  accustomed  to  representative  bodies 
and  the  forms  of  free  government;  they  understood  the  doc- 
trine of  the  division  of  power  among  different  branches,  and 
the  necessity  of  checks  on  each.  The  character  of  our  country- 
men, moreover,  was  sober,  moral,  and  religious,  and  tliere  was 
little  in  the  change  to  shock  their  feelings  of  justice  and  hu- 
manity, or  even  to  disturb  an  honest  prejudice.  We  had  no 
domestic  throne  to  overturn,  no  privileged  orders  to  cast  down, 
no  violent  changes  of  property  to  encounter.  In  the  American 
Revolution,  no  man  sought  or  wished  for  more  than  to  defend 
and  enjoy  his  own.  None  hoped  for  plunder  or  for  spoil. 
Rapacity  was  unknown  to  it ;  the  ax  was  not  among  the  in- 
struments of  its  accomplishment ;  and  we  all  know  that  it 
could  not  have  lived  a  single  day  under  any  well-founded  im- 
putation of  possessing  a  tendency  adverse  to  the  Christian 
religion.  —  Weusteu  :  The  Bunker  Hill  Monument. 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  41 

EXERCISE 

Is  the  following  'properly  indented?  If  not^  make  the 
proper  changes.  Before  makhig  the  divisions.,  decide  how 
many  master  ideas  are  presented ;  then  indent  in  such  a  way 
that  there  will  he  as  many  paragraphs  as  master  ideas.  See 
that  each  sentence  is  in  the  paragraph  to  which  it  properly 
belongs.      What  is  the  topic  of  each  paragraph  ? 

Begin  a  reformation,  and  custom  will  make  it  easy.  But 
what  if  the  beginning  be  dreadful,  the  first  steps  not  like 
climbing  a  mountain,  but  going  through  fire  ?  What  if  the 
whole  system  must  undergo  a  change  violent  as  that  which  we 
conceive  of  the  mutation  of  a  form  in  some  insects  ? 

What  if  a  process  comparable  to  flaying  alive  have  to  be 
gone  through  ?  Is  the  weakness  that  sinks  under  such 
struggles  to  be  confounded  with  the  pertinacity  which  clings  to 
other  vices,  which  have  induced  no  constitutional  necessity,  no 
engagement  of  the  whole  victim,  body  and  soul  ?  I  have 
known  one  in  that  state,  when  he  has  tried  to  abstain  but  for 
one  evening  —  though  the  poisonous  potion  had  long  ceased  to 
bring  back  its  first  enchantments,  though  he  was  sure  it  would 
rather  deepen  his  gloom  than  brighten  it  —  in  the  violence  of 
the  struggle,  and  the  necessity  he  has  felt  of  getting  rid  of  the 
present  sensation  at  any  rate,  I  have  known  him  to  scream  out, 
to  cry  aloud,  for  the  anguish  and  pain  of  the  strife  within  him. 
Why  should  I  hesitate  to  declare  that  the  man  of  whom  I  speak 
is  myself  ?     I  have  no  puling  apology  to  make  to  mankind. 

I  see  them  all  in  one  way  or  another  deviating  from  the  pure 
reason.  It  is  to  my  own  nature  alone  I  am  accountable  for  the 
woe  I  have  brought  upon  it.  I  believe  that  there  are  constitu- 
tions, robust  heads  and  iron  insides,  whom  scarce  any  excesses 
can  hurt;  whom  brandy  (I  have  seen  them  drink  it  like  wine), 
at  all  events,  whom  wine,  taken  in  ever  so  plentiful  a  measure, 
can  do  no  worse  injury  to  than  just  to  muddle  their  faculties, 


42  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

perhaps  never  very  pellucid.  On  them  this  discourse  is 
wasted. 

They  woidd  but  laugh  at  a  weak  brother,  who,  trying  his 
strength  with  them,  and  coming  off  foiled  from  the  contest, 
would  fain  persuade  them  that  such  agonistic  exercises  are 
dangerous.  It  is  to  a  very  different  description  of  i)ersons  1 
speak.  It  is  to  the  weak,  the  nervous ;  to  those  who  feel  the 
want  of  some  artificial  aid  to  raise  their  spirits  in  society  to  what 
is  no  more  than  the  ordinary  pitch  of  all  around  them  without  it. 
This  is  the  secret  of  our  drinking.  Such  must  fly  the  convivial 
board  in  the  first  instance,  if  they  do  not  mean  to  sell  them- 
selves for  term  of  life.  Twelve  years  ago  I  completed  my  six- 
and-twentieth  year.  I  had  lived  from  the  period  of  leaving 
school  to  that  time  pretty  much  in  solitude. 

My  companions  were  chiefly  books,  or  at  most  one  or  two 
living  ones  of  my  own  book-loving  and  sober  stamp.  I  rose 
early,  went  to  bed  betimes,  and  the  faculties  which  God  had 
given  me,  I  have  reason  to  think,  did  not  rust  in  me  unused. 
About  that  time  I  fell  in  with  some  companions  of  a  different 
order.  They  were  men  of  boisterous  spirits,  sitting  up  anights, 
disputants,  drunken,  yet  seemed  to  have  something  noble  about 
them.  We  dealt  about  the  wit,  or  what  passes  for  it  after  mid- 
night, jovially. 

Of  the  quality  called  fancy  I  certainly  possessed  a  larger 
share  than  my  conrpanions.  Encouraged  by  their  applause,  I 
set  up  for  a  professed  joker:  —  I,  who  of  all  men  am  least  fitted 
for  such  an  occupation,  having,  in  addition  to  the  greatest  dif- 
ficulty which  I  experience  at  all  times  of  finding  words  to 
express  my  meaning,  a  natural  nervous  impediment  in  my 
speech.  —  Lamb  :  Confessions  of  a  Drunkard. 

UNITY    IN    THE    PARAGRAPH 

The  principles  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis,  al- 
ready explained  in  the  chapter  on  the  whole  composition 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  43 

apply  with  equal  force  to  the  paragraph.  It  may  be  noted 
that  some  of  the  compositions  (see  chapter  I)  used  for 
illustration  were  single  paragraphs,  constituting  complete 
themes.  In  such  cases  the  same  principles  which  direct 
the  writing  of  the  whole  comi^osition  will,  of  course, 
direct  the  writing  of  the  single  paragraph.  We  shall  find 
that  in  the  application  of  these  principles  to  the  related 
paragraphs  no  essential  differences  exist.  We  may  now 
examine  more  directly  these  same  principles  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis  —  as  applied  solely  to  any  well- 
constructed  paragraph  —  either  isolated  or  related. 

First,  we  may  ask :  What  demand  does  the  principle 
of  unity  make  upon  the  paragraph?  The  principle  of 
unity,  it  may  be  answered,  demands  that  all  the  phrases, 
clauses,  and  sentences  within  the  paragraph  should  so  com- 
pletely merge  themselves  into  one  central  thought,  that 
this  central  thought  can  be  expressed  in  a  single  summa- 
rizing statement.  This  central  thought  we  may  call  the 
master  idea ;  the  subordinate  items  tliat  group  themselves 
about  the  master  idea  we  may  call  serving  ideas.  Let  us 
note  how  the  dominating  or  central  idea  is  developed  in 
the  following  theme,  and  how  it  is  summarized  at  the  end. 

How  Debating  Develops  Responsibility 

I  have  discovered  that  the  work  which  I  am  doing  in  the 
debating  class  is  developing  my  sense  of  personal  responsi- 
bility. When  I  am  assigned  a  definite  part  in  a  debate,  I  feel 
that  I  must  make  thorough  preparation ;  for  if  I  rely  upon 
mere  extempore  speaking,  I  can  neither  contribute  adequately 
to  the  strength  of  my  own  side  nor  refute  effectively  the  argu- 
ments of  my  opponents.  Neither  can  I,  in  this  preparation, 
rely  upon  other  members  of  my  class ;  for  all  important  points 
in  the  argument  must  be  mastered,  and  mastered  so  thoroughly 


44  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

that  the  logical  pi-esentation  of  them  will  convince  the  judges 
that  my  side  should  be  awarded  the  decision.  Should  I  fail  in 
this  presentation,  I  should  reflect  discredit  not  only  upon  my- 
self, but  also  upon  my  colleagues  in  the  debate.  All  these  facts 
impress  me  so  strongly  that  they  simply  force  me  to  make  that 
sort  of  minute  study  which  is  carried  on  only  when  one  feels 
the  strong  impelling  sense  of  personal  responsibility. 

Examining  this  composition,  we  find  no  phrase  that 
does  not  relate  to  the  central  idea  of  personal  responsibility 
in  debating  work.  This  master  idea  finds  exact  phrasing 
in  the  closing  part  of  the  first  sentence. 

The  work  which  I  am  doing  in  the  debating  class  is  develop- 
ing my  sense  of  personal  responsibility. 

Every  idea  in  the  theme  —  the  notion  that  the  writer 
must  not  rely  upon  extempore  speaking,  that  he  must  not 
rely  upon  his  friends,  and  that  he  owes  a  duty  to  himself 
and  to  his  colleagues  —  all  these  act  as  serving  ideas  that 
volunteer  to  carry  on  in  detail  the  work  of  the  master 
idea.  These  subordinate  ideas  simply  explain  and  amplify 
the  thought  of  the  topic  sentence  that  "  debating  develops 
responsibility." 

Any  paragraph,  then,  which  expresses  one  distinct  and 
dominating  thought,  possesses  unity.  It  may  admit  minor 
ideas,  but  it  employs  these  minor  ideas  for  the  purpose  of 
illustrating,  emphasizing,  or  amplifying  the  single  major 
thought  of  the  paragraph.  Certain  definite  instructions 
will  be  of  practical  value  in  helping  the  writer  to  secure 
this  unity  of  the  paragrapli. 

Aids  to  Unity.  —  The  writer  who  wishes  to  secure  unity 
in  his  paragraph  will  need  to  ol)serve  carefully  these  three 
directions :  (1)  Follow  an  outline ;  (2)  frame  a  topic 
sentence ;    (3)  keep  tlie  same    point   of    view.     He  may 


THE    PARAGRAPH    AND    ITS    STRUCTURE  45 

further  guard  himself  by  noting  certain  viohxtions  of  the 
principle  of  unity. 

1.  By  constructing  an  outline  and  keeping  it  before 
him,  the  writer  is  the  more  able  to  keep  to  the  main  idea 
which  he  seeks  to  express.  This  outline,  though  brief,  if 
consistently  adhered  to  will  serve  as  a  guide  to  keep  the 
writer  to  his  definite  task. 

EXERCISE 

Make  a  brief  outline  of  one  or  more  of  the  folloiving  topics: 

1.  The  Study  I  Like  Best. 

2.  The  Tasks  of  Early  Spring. 

3.  The  Work  of  a  Hay  Tedder. 

4.  My  Paper  Route. 

5.  Planting  a  Flower  Bed. 

2.  Even  though  it  may  not  seem  advisable  to  use  a 
definite  topic  sentence,  the  writer  will  gain  a  sense  of 
unity  in  his  own  mind  by  writing  out  in  a  complete  sen- 
tence the  main  idea  which  he  wishes  to  develop  in  a  para- 
graph. More  especially  will  this  device  aid  him  if  he  uses 
a  topic  sentence  at  the  first  of  the  paragraph,  and  makes 
each  sentence  follow  this  beginning. 

EXERCISE 

Develop  a  parac/raph  from  one  of  the  following  topic  sen- 
tences : 

1.  I  earned  my  first  dollar  by  selling  papers. 

2.  I  find  that  my  poor  penmanship  is  a  serious  handicap. 

3.  Life  on  the  farm  tends  to  develop  a  boy's  sense  of  respon- 
sibility. 

4.  Saturdays  are  my  busiest  days. 


46  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

5.  Arithmetic  is  my  favorite  study. 

6.  Stamp  collecting  is  my  hobby. 

]\Iany  inexperienced  .writers  have  the  mistaken  no- 
tion that  it  makes  little  difference  how  they  begin  and  end 
each  paragraph.  For  example,  in  describing  how  he 
earned  his  first  dollar,  the  average  pu})il  unwisely  starts 
out  with  this  useless  sentence: 

^irst  dollars  are  earned  in  many  different  ways. 

It  would  be  more  interesting  to  say  simply, 

I  earned  my  first  dollar  by  selling  papers. 

Similarly,  after  he  has  reached  the  end,  the  writer  should 
not  lengthen  the  paragraph  with  such  useless  appendages 
as  the  following  : 

And  later  I  came  home  to  a  good  dinner ; 
And  that's  the  end  of  my  story  ; 
Now,  I  think,  I  have  told  you  all. 

This  does  not  imply  that  the  beginnings  and  endings  of 
paragraphs  should  be  abrupt.  It  does  mean  that  no  sen- 
tences should  be  written  simply  to  tack  on.  It  is  alto- 
gether possible  to  have  the  beginnings  and  endings  simple 
and  definite;    not  abrupt  or  purposeless. 

EXERCISE 

Select  from  the  2'>fir<^ifP'<(phs  on  pai/es  76-84,  those  which 
have  good  enduir/s  ;  those  tchich  have  poor  endinys. 

3.  In  writing  a  theme,  the  writer  must  select  his  point 
of  view  and  hold  rigorously  to  it.  Failing  to  do  tliis,  he 
produces  the  sort  of  confusion  which  we  noted  on  page  17, 


THE    PARAGRAPH    AND    ITS    STRUCTURE  47 

where  the  writer,  describing  Niagara,  twice  shifts  his 
point  of  view.  The  first  sentence  should  indicate  clearly 
the  writer's  position,  and  throughout  tlie  paragraph  this 
position  should  not  be  shifted.  If,  as  sometimes  happens, 
it  is  necessary  to  change  the  view  point,  the  change  should 
be  clearly  indicated. 

EXERCISES 

I,  Write  sliort  themes  cm  '■'-School  Life '^  from  the  folloiv- 
ing  standpoints: 

1.  School  Life  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Sixth  Grade  Pupil. 

2.  School  Life  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  High  School 
Pupil. 

3.  School  Life  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  College  Student. 

4.  School  Life  from  the  Standpoint  of  a  Parent. 

II.  Describe  a  river  as  seen  from  a  high  mountain. 

III.  Describe  this  same  river  as  you  see  it  from  a  row- 
boat. 

IV.  Imagine  that  you  started  a  quarter  of  a  mile  north  of 
the  tree  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture  on  page  48  and  fol- 
lowed the  brook  in  your  walk.  In  describing  the  changing 
scene  be  sure  to  keep  the  reader  informed  of  your  shifting  point 
of  vietv.  Emphasize  the  whiteness  in  the  scene  by  mentioning 
the  dark  shadoivs  and  the  places  tvhich  have  been  untouched 
by  the  snow.  Enliven  the  scetie  by  touches  of  animal  life^ 
but  preserve  the  habitual  quiet  of  a  country  scene  in  winter. 

Violations  of  Unity.  —  Any  pupil  who  examines  many 
paragraphs  will  find  that  most  of  the  violations  of  unity 
may  be  grouped  under  the  three  headings  :  (1)  Making 
a  short  paragraph  out  of  every  important  sentence  ;  (2) 
grouping  within  a  single  paragraph  sentences  which  ex- 


48 


COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


press    thoughts    not    closely    related ;     (3)    digressions. 
These  violations  we  may  examine  in  more  detail. 


1.  In  the  first  place,  tlie  indention  of  many  sentences 
on  a  page  produces  an  appearance  which  the  eye  resents. 
More  objectionable,  however,  than  this  mechanical  fault 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     49 

is  the  structural  fault  which  disregards  the  principle  of 
unity  in  the  paragraph.  In  the  following  theme  we  see 
both  offenses  : 

A  Live  Mouse  Trap 

Although  I  am  not  afraid  of  a  mouse,  I  must  say  that  I  have 
been  frightened  by  a  live  mouse  trap.  This  may  sound  like  a 
fairy  tale,  but  it  is  true  nevertheless. 

This  summer,  early  in  the  morning,  I  heard  a  tap,  tap,  tap, 
in  the  room  next  to  mine.  I  naturally  wondered  what  it  was, 
but  arriving  at  no  solution  to  the  riddle,  I  called  to  mother  to 
ask  her  what  caused  it.  She  was  evidently  asleep,  so  I  deter- 
mined that  I  would  not  bother  about  the  irregular  tapping  on 
the  floor  and  was  soon  sleeping. 

I  was  awakened  again  by  this  noise,  which  sounded  rather 
familiar,  so  I  decided  that  I  would  investigate  and  learn  what 
caused  it. 

I  jumped  out  of  bed  and  started  toward  the  next  room,  but 
when  I  neared  the  door,  mother  called  to  me  to  be  careful. 

I  was,  for  I  saw  the  mouse  trap  come  hopping,  in  a  zigzag 
course,  across  the  floor. 

A  mouse  had  evidently  become  inquisitive,  and  hungry  for 
the  cheese  in  the  trap,  and  as  a  result  was  caught,  but  not 
caught  in  the  usual  way. 

Its  nose  only  had  been  seized  in  the  catch  of  the  trap,  leav- 
ing the  rest  of  the  body  free ;  consequently  the  poor  little 
mouse  struggled  for  complete  freedom. 

In  doing  so  it  bounced  the  trap  up  and  down  upon  the  floor, 
the  sound  of  which  had  awakened  me. 

I  felt  so  sorry  for  the  struggling  creature  that  I  attempted 
to  kill  it,  but  I  had  no  chance  of  striking  it  upon  the  head  so 
had  to  leave  the  mouse  in  its  misery,  until  one  of  the  men  ap- 
peared later  on  to  take  it  away  and  end  its  existence. 

2.  The  grouping  of  unrelated  thoughts  into  a  single 
paragraph  offends  likewise  against  unity,  for  it  makes  im~ 

E 


50  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

possible  the  proper  relation  of  the  parts  of  the  paragraph. 
Moreover,  the  eye  soon  tires  when  it  must  peruse  page 
after  page  of  compact  type  without  the  varied  effects  of 
fairly  regular  indentions.  Read  the  following  theme  for 
these  violations : 

How  TO  Fry  Tomatoes 

Once  when  I  was  visiting  in  the  country,  my  cousin  Mabel 
showed  me  how  she  fried  tomatoes.  She  selected  four  large 
ripe  ones  and  cut  them  into  thick  slices.  These  slices  she 
rolled  in  flour  and  then  laid  them  in  a  large  frying  pan  where 
good-sized  lumps  of  butter  and  lard  had  previously  been 
melted.  The  tomatoes  we  set  over  a  hot  fire  and  left  them 
until  well  browned.  She  then  sprinkled  salt,  pepper,  and  sugar 
over  them  and  added  a  small  })itcher  of  milk.  All  of  these 
were  then  boiled  and  stirred  until  they  became  a  thick  rich 
gravy.  I  thought  they  were  much  better  than  fried  apples. 
These  you  cut  into  thin  slices,  place  them  in  melted  butter,  add 
sugar,  and  stir  over  a  hot  fire  until  thoroughly  browned. 

3.  Perhaps  the  commonest  fault  in  paragraph  structure 
is  digression.  Indeed,  only  the  skilled  writer  succeeds  in 
keeping  so  rigidly  to  the  main  idea  that  he  never  loses 
the  sense  of  unity.  To  unpracticed  writers,  foreign  ideas 
constantly  suggest  themselves,  and  oftentimes  creep  in  un- 
awares. The  pupil  should  be  able  to  detect  such  a  viola- 
tion in  the  following  theme  : 

]\Iusic 

Music  appeals  to  our  emotional  senses.  When  I  was  a  small 
boy,  living  in  northern  New  York,  I  studied  music  in  the 
schools.  One  day  when  I  was  visiting  my  cousin  in  New 
Hampshire,  we  were  wandering  over  the  hills  of  his  father's 
farm  and  accidentally  stumbled  on  the  shell  of  a  dead  snap- 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  51 

ping  turtle.  We  cut  away  all  except  the  upper  dome,  and 
then  stretched  some  strings  on  the  under  side.  When  we 
went  home  and  showed  this  to  my  uncle  he  told  us  the  story 
of  Jubal  and  then  read  to  us  Dryden's  poem,  A  Song  for  St. 
Cecilia^s  Day,  which  tells  of  the  effect  of  Jubal's  music  upon 
his  brethren.     Pope's  poetry  I  like  better  than  Dryden's. 

It  will  now  appear  that  unity  of  the  paragraph  demands 
the  working  out  of  a  single  definite  idea.  In  other  words, 
all  irrelevant  matter  is  to  be  excluded.  As  a  test  of  the 
unity  of  any  paragraph,  the  pupil  may  try  to  express  the 
entire  paragraph  in  a  brief  .sentence.  If  he  is  able  to  tell 
in  a  concise  sentence  all  that  the  paragraph  expresses, 
he  may  be  sure  that  the  paragraph  is  unified. 

COHERENCE  IN  THE  PARAGRAPH 

Now  we  are  ready  to  ask  our  second  question :  What 
does  coherence  in  the  paragraph  demand? 

We  may  answer:  Coherence  in  the  paragraph  requires 
that  every  sentence  —  except  the  first  —  shall  grow  natu- 
rally out  of  the  one  which  precedes  and  lead  naturally  to 
the  one  which  follows.  When  such  a  relationship  is  main- 
tained throughout  the  paragraph,  the  reader  is  not 
annoyed  by  being  jerked  from  topic  to  topic,  but  is  led 
on  in  such  a  manner  that  he  soon  learns  to  trust  himself 
to  the  hands  of  a  careful  and  intelligent  guide. 

This  sense  of  location  is  as  important  in  writing  as  it  is 
in  traveling.  Most  of  us  know  the  disagreeable  sensation 
of  being  lost  —  it  may  be  in  the  forest  or  in  the  city. 
And  we  know,  too,  how  eager  we  are  to  find  the  person 
who  will  set  us  right  and  how  willingly  we  trust  him. 
It  is  equally  the  duty  of  the  writer  so  to  construct  his  para- 
graphs that  the  reader  of  average  alertness  and  wakefulness 


52  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

will  never  lose  liis  directions.  This  easy  guiding  may  be 
accomplished  by  attention  to  two  important  matters, — 
logical  thought  and  connected  phrasing. 

By  watching  the  logical  sequence  of  thought,  the  writer 
will  not  admit  those  ideas  which  do  not  belong  in  the 
paragraph.  By  giving  attention  to  the  connection  of 
parts,  he  will  make  the  relationship  of  all  the  ideas  clear. 
The  serving  ideas  will  be  properly  subordinated  to  the  mas- 
ter idea;  and  the  relationsliip  of  the  serving  ideas,  one 
to  another,  will  be  unmistakable.  Read  the  following 
theme  and  observe  how  logical  arrangement  of  thought 
and  the  proper  use  of  connectives  have  secured  coherence. 
The  important  connectives  are  printed  in  italics. 

The  Evolutiox  of  Birds 

There  is  a  theory  among  scientists  that,  many  thousands  of 
years  ago,  this  earth  was  devoid  of  birds  until  a  certain  class 
of  reptiles,  finding  life  among  the  trees  more  to  their  advan- 
tage, developed  some  of  the  characteristics  of  the  birds  of  to- 
day, and  in  course  of  time  became  a  reptilelike  bird.  Wliether 
this  will  ever  be  proved  to  be  more  than  a  theory  is  doiibtful, 
but  there  is,  nevertheless,  in  tlie  British  jMuseum  to-day  a  fossil 
of  an  ancient  bird  bearing  many  of  the  characteristics  of  a 
lizard,  which  scientists  universally  concede  to  be  the  common 
ancestor  of  all  of  our  birds.  All  birds,  scientists  tell  us,  were 
once  similar  to  this  fossil  form ;  but  from  year  to  year,  as  dif- 
ferent ones  became  suited  for  other  conditions,  these  birds 
gradually  differentiated,  and  finally  evolved  into  distinct  spe- 
cies. So  it  was  with  birds  like  the  woodpeckers.  Finding 
that  food  could  be  easily  got  by  pecking  the  bark  of  trees, 
they  would  frequently  resort  to  this  method,  until  their  claws 
and  beaks  finally  became  adapted  for  that  sort  of  vor'k,  and 
their  tail  feathers  became  stiffer  for  propping  their  bodies 
against  limbs.     Succeeding  generations  showed  more  advance 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE      53 

along  these  lines,  until  finally  the  birds  became  peculiarly 
adapted  for  tliis  life.  So  it  was,  indeed,  with  all  our  birds : 
some  became  adapted  for  swimming;  others  for  wading;  still 
others  for  the  catching  of  fish  or  insects.  It  is  interesting,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  note  that  there  are  some  species  that  have  dif- 
ferentiated, not  by  an  advancement,  but  by  a  retrograde  meta- 
morphosis. Such  is  the  case  of  the  chicken.  Having  been 
domesticated,  it  has  had  little  use  for  its  wings,  which  have 
consequently  degenerated  until  it  has  practically  lost  its  power 
of  flight.  Experiments  have  shown  that  where  chickens  have 
been  allowed  to  run  wild  for  a  good  many  years,  the  wings 
have  shown,  after  a  number  of  generations,  a  decided  advance- 
ment. But  whether  species  are  developed  by  degeneration  or 
by  advancement,  it  is  interesting  to  speculate  upon  the  fact  that 
the  thousands  of  different  birds  known  to-day  are  descended 
from  one  common  type. 

In  the  foregoing  theme  one  main  idea  is  expressed,  and 
this  is  followed  by  the  subordinate  ideas  which  should 
logically  follow.  The  separate  steps  are  indicated  by  the 
italicized  connectives. 

EXERCISE 

Write  uijon  one  of  the  following  subjects.  Remember  the 
importance  (1)0/  arranging  your  ideas  and  (2)  of  connect- 
ing them. 

1.  My  Reasons  for  Reading  Fiction. 

2.  The  Best  Sort  of  Bookcase. 

3.  The  Care  of  Young  Turkeys. 

4.  The  Value  of  an  Art  Course. 

5.  The  Way  to  Develop  Eilms. 

6.  The  Way  to  Decorate  a  Den. 

Violations  of  Coherence.  —  Often  mere  ,  carelessness  or 
thoughtlessness    makes    the    writinsf    incoherent.       The 


54  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RIIKTORIC 

writer  thinks  that  he  understands  so  well  his  own  posi- 
tion and  his  purpose  that  he  forgets  that  his  readers  are 
not  so  intelligent  as  he.  In  viewing  the  matter  from  his 
standpoint,  and  not  from  the  standpoint  of  the  readers, 
he  jumps  without  warning  from  topic  to  topic,  so  that 
his  readers  are  helpless  and  unable  to  follow.  This 
thoughtless  attitude  appears  in  three  violations  of  coher- 
ence:  (1)  disregard  of  the  logical  order;  (2)  disregard 
of  the  time  order ;  and  (H)  omission  of  coiniectives. 

1.  The  logical  order  demands  that  the  writer  proceed 
from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  The  writer  ignores 
this  demand  when  he  assumes  tliat  the  reader  knows 
what  should  be  explicitly  stated.  The  following  sen- 
tences will   illustrate  : 

Andrea  del  Sarto  was  a  faultless  painter.  Lucrezia  made 
his  life  miserable. 

The  pupil  failed  to  remember  that  many  readers  would 
not  know  that  Lucrezia  was  the  painter's  faithless  wife. 

2.  The  time  order  demands  that  events  should  be  nar- 
rated in  the  order  in  which  they  occur.  If  a  pupil,  in 
writing  of  a  horseback  ride,  should  say  that  he  galloped 
down  the  pike,  and  later  came  back  and  put  the  horse  into 
the  stable,  he  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  incident 
was  finished.  If  he  should  add,  "  Before  this,  I  had  the 
misfortune  to  fall  off  the  horse's  back  and  break  my  arm," 
we  should  feel  that  he  had  no  good  excuse  for  telling  the 
incidents  in  that  order.  The  young  writer,  accordingly, 
will  adopt  a  safe  rule  if  he  resolves  to  tell  the  important 
events  in  the  order  of  tlieir  occurrence.  This  plan  will 
help  to  secure  coherence  in  his  paragraphs.  A  strict  time 
order  is  not  always  necessary  ;  indeed,  it  is  not  alwayaNpos- 
sible,  for  very  often  important  events  are  happening  at  the 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     55 

same  moment.  The  necessary  thing  is  that  the  reader  be 
informed  of  the  time  relationship,  so  that  the  narrative 
may  be  natural  and  intelligible. 

3.  Another  violation  of  coherence  results  from  the 
omission  of  proper  connectives.  Even  when  the  ideas 
are  arranged  in  proper  sequence,  this  sequence  must  be 
made  evident  to  the  reader  by  some  such  expressions  as 
hoivever,  nevertheless^  in  the  meantime^  this,  next  in  order,  in 
turn,  furthermore,  or  exactly  contrary.  Tliese  connectives 
perform  an  office  similar  to  that  of  the  mortar  which  holds 
in  place  the  bricks  of  a  chimney. 

EXERCISE 

Write,  in  fifteen  minutes,  a  paragraph,  using  one  of  the 
following  as  the  topic  sentence.  When  you  have  finished  the 
first  draft,  examine  it  carefully  to  see  if  coherence  has  been 
violated  in  any  one  of  the  three  ivays  discussed. 

1.  A  pupil  in  the  high  school  has  too  little  time  for  gen- 
eral reading. 

2.  Most  of  us  are  careless  in  our  enunciation. 

3.  Teachers  should  not  assign  any  work  for  vacation. 

4.  The  planting  of  ivy  should  be  encouraged  by  the  school 
authorities. 

5.  Our  school  should  encourage  the  reformed  spelling. 

6.  The  lack  of  interest  in  Greek  is  to  be  deplored. 

7.  Accuracy  in  scholarship  is  almost  unknown  among  high 
school  pupils. 

8.  Grammar  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  literature. 

9.  The  loss  of  sight  makes  the  other  senses  more  acute. 

10.  The  most  influential  student  does  not  always  receive 
the  highest  marks. 

11.  The  automobile  will  some  day  entirely  supplant  the 
horse. 


56  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

12.  There  should  be  fewer  elective  studies  iu  the  high 
school  course. 

13.  Seed  corn  should  be  selected  by  an  expert. 

14.  A  school  paper  helps  the  English  department  of  a 
school. 

15.  The  school  helps  to  develop  a  civic  conscience. 

16.  Consolidation  of  country  schools  should  be  encouraged. 

17.  The  rural  delivery  of  mail  has  been  a  great  boon  to  the 
farmer. 

18.  Every  boy  should  have  a  workshop. 

EMPHASIS    IN   THE   PARAGRAPH 

Since  unity  and  coherence  of  the  paragraph  have  been 
explained,  let  us  now  consider  the  quality  of  emphasis  and 
its  importance  in  the  making  of  a  paragraph.  Emphasis 
demands  that  the  space  given  to  the  sejjarate  points  shall 
accord  with  the  importance  of  those  points,  and  that  the 
two  items  of  most  significance  sliall  be  placed  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end,  the  end  being  the  stronger  of 
the  two  positions. 

If  the  writer  hopes  to  arrest  at  once  the  attention  of  the 
reader,  he  must  clearly  recognize  the  fact  that  the  position 
at  the  beginning  of  the  paragraph  is  important.  He  will 
generally  find  it  helpful  to  frame  a  concise  statement  that 
will  fitly  comprehend  the  main  idea  of  the  paragraph. 
Or  if  the  paragraph  is  a  related  paragraph,  —  one  of  sev- 
eral in  a  long  theme,  —  it  will  begin  b}^  connecting  itself 
witli  the  preceding  paragraph,  and  will  then  proceed  to 
introduce  another  phase  of  the  main  thought  of  the  entire 
theme.  The  body  of  the  paragraph  will  then  admit  am- 
plifications, illustrations,  or  details  which,  while  keeping 
the  correct  proportion  of  parts,  will  help  to  develop  the 
theme  of  the  paragraph.     As  these  details  should  be  so 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  57 

arranged  as  to  give  increasing  interest,  the  most  impor- 
tant items  should  be  phiced  at  the  end.  The  hist  sentence 
shoidd  phrase  the  thouglit  in  such  a  way  as  to  throw  upon 
the  strongest  idea  the  greatest  stress. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Examine  the  paragraphs  in  your  literature  assignment 
and  copy  the  one  which  best  illustrates  the  principle  of  em- 
phasis. 

II.  Jn  ffteen  or  twenty  minutes  write  a  theme  on  one  of 
the  topics  named  below.  Test  your  first  draft  by  the  follow- 
ing questions :  Is  the  reader  interested  in  the  opening  sen- 
tence? Does  the  arrangement  of  details  heighten  the  interest? 
Is  any  minor  fact  too  prominent  ?  Does  the  paragraph  end 
with  u'ords  ivhich  deserve  emphasis  ? 

1.  How  Wheat  is  Harvested  on  the  Western  Plains. 

2.  The  Advantages  of  Steel  Cars. 

3.  The  Best  Way  to  Learn  French. 

4.  Electricity  in  the  Modern  Theater. 

5.  Increasing  One's  Vocabulary. 

6.  Our  Civic  Improvement  League. 

7.  Mission  Furniture. 

8.  How  Coal  is  Mined. 

9.  What  Becomes  of  All  the  Pins  ? 

10.  Modern  Uses  of  the  Typewriter. 

11.  How  to  Take  Care  of  Cattle. 

12.  The  Uses  of  Alfalfa. 

13.  A  Modern  Kitchen  Convenience. 

14.  How  Cement  Blocks  Are  Made. 

15.  How  Maple  Sirup  Should  Be  Made. 

16.  The  Making  of  Window  Glass. 

17.  Electricity  in  the  Kitchen. 

18.  The  Care  of  Flowers. 


58  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

METHODS   OF   PARAGRAPH   DEVELOPMENT 

In  the  foregoing  treatment  of  the  paragraph,  we 
discussed  paragraph  structure.  AVe  learned  that  every 
properly  constructed  paragraph  follows  the  principles 
of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis.  We  shall  now  find 
it  helpful  to  study  certain  methods  which  writers  em- 
ploy more  or  less  consciously  in  constructing  paragraphs. 

Details.  —  In  accordance  with  one  method  of  paragraph 
development  frequently  employed,  the  writer  begins  with 
the  topic  sentence  and  follows  this  with  particulars  and 
details  that  explain  the  first  statement.  In  chapter  LXXX 
of  TJie  Ataerican  Commonwealth,  for  example,  James  Bryce 
begins  one  of  his  })aragraphs  by  commenting  upon  the  good 
nature  of  the  American  people.  As  details,  he  mentions 
that  Americans  soon  forget  their  anger,  that  they  abhor 
cruelty,  that  their  juries  are  lenient,  that  they  are  forgiving, 
and  that  their  political  rancor  is  short-lived.  The  com- 
plete paragraph  reads : 

The  Americans  are  a  good-natured  people,  kindly,  helpful 
to  one  another,  disposed  to  take  a  charitaVjle  view  even  of 
wrongdoers.  Their  anger  sometimes  flames  up,  but  the  fire  is 
soon  extinct.  Nowhere  is  cruelty  more  abhorred.  Even  a  mob 
lynching  a  horse  thief  in  the  West  has  consideration  for  the 
criininal,  and  will  give  him  a  good  drink  of  whisky  before  he 
is  strung  up.  Cruelty  to  slaves  was  unusual  while  slavery 
lasted,  the  best  proof  of  which  is  the  quietness  of  the  slaves 
during  the  war  when  all  the  men  and  many  of  the  boys  of  the 
South  were  serving  in  the  Confederate  armies.  As  everybody 
knows,  juries  are  more  lenient  to  offenses  of  all  kinds  than 
they  are  anywhere  in  Europe.  The  Southern  "rebels"  were 
soon  forgiven;  and  tliough  civil  wars  are  proverbially  bitter, 
there  have  been  few  struggles  in  which  the  combatants  did  so 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     59 

many  little  friendly  acts  for  one  another,  few  in  which  even  the 
vanquished  have  so  quickly  buried  their  resentments.  It  is 
true  that  newspapers  and  public  speakers  say  hard  things  of 
their  opponents ;  but  this  is  a  part  of  the  game,  and  is  besides 
a  way  of  relieving  their  feelings :  the  bark  is  sometimes  the 
louder  in  order  that  a  bite  may  not  follow.  Vindictiveness 
shown  by  a  public  man  excites  general  disapproval,  and  the 
maxim  of  letting  bygones  be  bygones  is  pushed  so  far  that 
an  offender's  misdeeds  are  often  forgotten  when  they  ought  to 
be  remembered  against  him.^ 

EXERCISES 
I.     Comment  on  the  merits  and  defects  of  the  following 
themes  which  ivere  tvritten  hy  jyupils  loho  endeavored  to  de- 
velop the  paragraph  by  the  use  of  details.     Note  the  incorrect 
and  the  ineffective  sentences. 

A  Visit  to  a  Bactekiological  Laboratoey 

This  last  winter  I  had  the  good  fortune  to  go  through  the 
bacteriological  laboratory  at  the  State  House.  Upon  entering 
the  room,  I  was  greeted  by  the  aromas  of  carbolic  acid  and 
formaldehyde  mixed  together  with  a  somewhat  pleasing  effect. 
Around  the  room  on  shelves  stood  an  orderly  array  of  glass 
bottles  and  tin  boxes,  all  containing  specimens  of  germs  of  all 
kinds.  In  one  corner  of  the  room  stood  a  small  furnace  where 
the  germs  were  heated  and  cooked.  A  large,  massive,  hard- 
wood table  occupied  the  center  of  the  room.  This  is  the  ex- 
ecutioner's block  of  these  minute  purveyors  of  death  and 
disease.  Here  they  are  slaughtered  in  cold  blood  and  put  away 
for  further  inspection.  Under  a  powerful  microscope  on  this 
table,  I  beheld  the  larva  of  the  deadly  worm,  trichina.  On 
another  and  smaller  table  was  a  machine  which  separates  the 
various  liquids  used  in  the  laboratory.  This  is  a  machine 
composed  of  a  number  of  tubes,  arranged  on  an  iron  ring,  and 

1  Copyright,  1894,  by  Macmillan  &  Co.  By  special  permissiou  of  the 
publishers. 


CO  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

whirled  around  by  electricity.  When  in  use,  this  machine 
attains  a  speed  which  is  simply  frightful ;  if  one  of  the  parts 
should  become  detached,  it  would  go  through  a  person  with  the 
speed  of  a  bullet.  To  prevent  accidents,  it  is  incased  in  a 
large  box,  built  especially  for  that  purpose.  On  the  whole, 
I  think  you  will  agree  witli  me  in  saying  that  the  laboratory 
was  a  very  interesting  place. 

The  Primary  Room 

One  of  the  things  which  recalls  to  my  mind  my  early  child- 
hood is  the  room  in  which  I  started  my  school  career  and 
Avhich  looks  to-day  as  it  looked  to  me  on  that  memorable  "  first 
day."  Five  long  wooden  tables  painted  red  are  placed  in  a 
semicircle  around  the  room.  Around  these  low,  miniature 
pieces  of  furniture  are  placed  small  red  chairs,  only  a  little 
larger  than  those  which  dolls  usually  occupy.  In  these  sit  the 
children;  with  their  stiffly  starched  dresses  sticking  out  like 
boards  and  their  tight  braids  flopping  every  minute,  as  they 
look  wonderingly  toward  the  large  desk  in  the  corner,  from 
whence  directions  are  coming.  The  short,  smiling  teacher  calls 
their  attention  to  the  alphabet  arranged  along  the  top  of  the 
front  blacklioard,  and  to  the  words  and  sentences  which  have 
been  placed  there  for  their  use;  such  as,  "I  see  a  cow,"'  "The 
cat  sat  on  the  mat,"  "The  ball  is  red."  As  we  look  at 
another  blackboard,  we  easily  see  that  these  tiny  tots  have 
had  their  first  painting  lesson.  They  had  tried  their  luck  at 
making  the  picture  of  a  small  girl  as  she  looked  on  a  rainy  day 
with  her  umbrella.  They  are  all  comical,  but  they  are  very 
good,  as  the  teacher  informs  them,  *'  for  pupils  who  have  been 
in  school  only  one  week."  The  room  is  decorated  with  lanterns 
of  bright  colors  and  balls  of  American  flags.  On  the  sills  of 
the  large  clean  windows  are  many  potted  flowers  and  plants 
which  help  to  make  the  rooua  more  pleasant.  Although  this 
room  is  very  attractive,  I  am  glad  that  I  do  not  recite  there, 
for  I  would  not  wish  to  go  thi'ough  my  school  life  again. 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE 


01 


II.  Write  an  imaginary/  account  of  a  visit  to  the  school 
pictured  here.  Employing  the  method  of  developing  the 
paragraph  hy  details,  describe  the  school  as  you  saw  it  from  the 
teacher'' s  desk.  Describe  some  of  the  different  types  of  children 
that  you  noted.  Describe  the  teacher'' s  face,  dress,  voice,  ajid 
manner.  Tell  of  the  relation  which  seemed  to  exist  between 
the  teacher  and  her  pupils,  and  of  the  attitude  of  the  pupils 
toward  each  other.  Relate  three  or  four  incidents  which 
reflected  the  spirit  of  the  school. 


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III.  Imagine  yourself  as  a  high  school  pupil  thinking  back 
ten  years  to  your  experiences  under  this  teacher.  Record 
your  impressions  as  you  view  thefn  in  retrospect. 

By  One  Specific  Example.  —  Another  effective  method 
of  paragraph  development  is  to  make  a  detailed  use  of  one 
example  to  illustrate  the  topic  sentence.  This  method  is 
used  by  Walter  Bagehot  in  his  essay  entitled  Wordstvorth, 
Tennyson,  and  Browriing.     To  illustrate  what  he  means 


62  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

by  tlie  ornate,  Bagehot  calls  attention  to  the  workmanship 
of  Enoch  Arden. 

"  We  are  fortunate  in  not  having  to  himt  ont  of  past  litera- 
ture an  illustrative  specimen  of  the  ornate  style.  Mr.  Tenny- 
son has  just  given  one  admirable  in  itself,  and  most  character- 
istic of  the  defects  and  the  merits  of  this  style.  The  story  of 
Enoch  Ardon,  as  he  has  enhanced  and  presented  it,  is  a  rich 
and  splendid  composite  of  imagery  and  illustration.  Yet  how 
simple  that  story  is  in  itself!  A  sailor  who  sells  fish,  breaks 
his  leg,  gets  dismal,  gives  up  selling  fish,  goes  to  sea,  is  wrecked 
on  a  desert  island,  stays  there  some  years,  on  his  return  finds 
his  wife  married  to  a  miller,  speaks  to  a  landlady  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  dies.  Told  in  the  pure  and  simple,  the  unadorned 
and  classical  style,  this  story  would  not  have  taken  three  pages, 
but  Mr.  Tennyson  has  been  able  to  make  it  the  principal — the 
largest  tale  in  his  new  volume.  He  has  done  so  only  by  giving 
to  every  event  and  incident  in  the  volume  an  accompanying 
commentary.  He  tells  a  great  deal  about  the  torrid  zone, 
which  a  rough  sailor  like  Enoch  Arden  certainly  would  not 
have  perceived;  and  he  gives  to  the  fishing  village  to  which 
all  the  characters  belong  a  softness  and  a  fascination  which 
such  villages  scarcely  possess  in  reality." 

EXERCISE 

In  the  folloivirifj  themes,  developed  hy  example,  note  any 
digression  from  the  topic. 

An  Affectionate  Dog 

Some  dogs  are  so  affectionate  that  in  only  a  short  time 
they  will  become  very  much  attached  to  a  person.  For  in- 
stance, when  I  went  to  visit  my  uncle  a  few  years  ago,  a  little 
French  poodle  named  Daisy  became  very  fond  of  me.  AVhen 
I  entered  the  house  for  the  first  time,  a  little  fluffy  ball  of  a 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  63 

dog  was  sleeping  in  front  of  the  grate.  As  soon  as  she  heard 
us,  she  jumped  up  and  scampered  to  my  uncle,  and  after  chew- 
ing his  iingers  for  a  while  came  over  to  inspect  me.  After  she 
had  climbed  up  to  smell  what  was  in  my  pockets,  she  jumped 
to  the  floor  and  taking  a  position  directly  in  front  of  me,  sat 
up  and  begged.  I  gave  her  a  piece  of  candy,  which  she  ate 
greedily.  My  uncle  then  put  her  through  several  tricks,  and 
then  allowed  her  to  do  other  performances  by  herself.  At  sup- 
per she  occupied  a  place  close  to  my  feet,  and  did  not  beg  any 
more  until  supper  was  finished.  Daisy  quieted  down  when  we 
went  into  the  sitting  room  and  was  soon  asleep ;  but  the  follow- 
ing day  when  she  found  me  packing  my  valise  she  nearly  went 
wild  with  excitement.  She  went  through  the  whole  performance 
of  the  night  before,  and  when  I  boarded  the  train  the  curly 
little  ball  came  bounding  after  me.  My  uncle  took  her,  but  she 
was  not  to  be  soothed  by  him  and  ran  away  to  the  buggy  where 
she  watched  the  train  depart. 

An  Experience  in  the  Dark 

Most  children,  when  going  through  a  dark  room,  imagine  all 
kinds  of  hideous  creatures  are  after  and  around  them.  For 
example,  an  experience  of  mine  at  my  Grandfather's  house 
will  always  stay  in  my  mind.  I  had  been  punished  for  some- 
thing which  I  thought  was  only  a  trifling  matter,  and  was  told 
to  go  up  to  my  room.  I  went  rather  unwillingly,  for  I  knew 
what  I  should  have  to  go  through  on  the  way  upstairs.  After 
T  had  entered  the  hall  and  shut  the  door,  I  felt  as  if  I  were 
miles  from  any  one,  except  those  scary  things  that  live  in  the 
dark.  The  great  mirror  on  the  wall  seemed  to  reflect  all  that 
I  would  go  through.  When  I  reached  the  landing  on  the  stair. 
Grandfather's  clock  called  out  in  thunderous  tones  the  hour  of 
seven,  making  me  jump  about  six  steps,  and  landing  me  at  the 
top  of  the  stairs.  At  the  next  step  I  stood  stock  still,  my  hair 
on  end,  and  my  eyes  bulging  from  their  sockets.  There  at  the 
end  of  the  hall  appeared  two  small  balls  of  fire.     They  kept 


64  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

creeping  closer  and  closer.  All  the  stories  that  my  Grand- 
father had  ever  told  me  about  bears  and  tigers  popped  into 
my  head.  Gathering  around  me  now  were  hideous-looking 
creatures,  pointing  their  fingers  at  me  and  laughing  as  if 
scolding  me  for  being  so  frightened.  Just  then  Mary,  hav- 
ing heard  my  unsteady  steps  in  the  hall,  flung  the  door  open, 
and  I  sprang  through  the  doorway,  just  in  time  to  escape  the 
clutches  of  my  enemies  of  the  dark.  I  thought  that  after  that 
I  would  not  be  naughty  just  before  bedtime,  and  then  I  would 
not  have  to  go  upstairs  in  the  dark  by  myself. 

A  Study  ix  Poodles 

It  is  astonishing  to  note  the  affection  some  people  bestow 
on  pets,  even  after  they  become  old  and  sickly.  I  happen  to 
know  of  one  particular  instance  in  my  own  neighborhood.  An 
old  lady  who  lives  near  us  has  a  little  pet  poodle,  one  of  the 
long-haired  kind,  that  is  almost  twenty  years  old,  and  on 
which  she  bestows  more  care  and  affection  than  a  mother  on 
her  child.  This  canine  Methuselah  is  blind,  has  a  great  hump 
on  its  back,  and  is  so  diseased  that  it  is  unable  to  follow  its 
fond  mistress.  Consequently  she  carries  it  around  nearly  all 
the  time,  and  then  when  she  puts  it  down,  it  cries  like  a  sick 
child  till  she  takes  it  up  again.  It  lost  all  its  teeth  long  ago ; 
therefore  this  woman  grinds  all  of  its  food,  and  feeds  it  with  a 
spoon.  About  half  of  its  hair  has  come  out,  and  what  is  left 
stands  out  in  straggling  wisps  from  its  body.  All  together  it 
is  a  very  horrible  sight,  yet  this  woman  does  not  seem  to  see 
its  infirmities.     Ugh  !     I  shudder  every  time  I  think  of  it ! 

Comparison.  — Anotlier  way  to  bring  out  the  main  idea 
of  a  [)aragraph  is  by  comparison.  In  the  endeavor  to 
explain  anything,  the  writer  luiturally  tries  to  think  of 
something  whicli  tlie  reader  understands.  Having  dis- 
covered such  a  common  starting  point,  the  writer  carries 
out  the  comparison  by  noting  the  various  points  of  simi- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     65 

larity.  A  clear  illustration  of  this  method  is  the  follow- 
ing paragraph,  taken  from  Lecture  VI  of  John  Tyndall's 
Heat  Considered  as  a  Mode  of  Motion.  The  comparison  be- 
tween a  flower  and  a  snow  petal  is  carried  out  in  detail. 

"  Snow  perfectly  formed  is  not  an  irregular  aggregate  of  ice 
particles ;  in  a  calm  atmosphere,  the  aqueous  atoms  arrange 
themselves  so  as  to  form  the  most  exquisite  figures.  You 
have  seen  those  six-petaled  flowers  which  form  themselves 
within  a  block  of  ice  when  a  beam  of  heat  is  sent  through  it. 
The  snow  crystals,  formed  in  a  calm  atmosphere,  are  built 
upon  the  same  type ;  the  molecules  arrange  themselves  to 
form  hexagonal  stars.  From  a  central  nucleus  shoot  spiculae, 
every  two  of  which  are  separated  by  an  angle  of  60°.  From 
these  central  ribs  smaller  spiculae  shoot  right  and  left  with 
unerring  fidelity  to  the  angle  60°,  and  from  these  again  other 
smaller  ones  diverge  at  the  same  angle.  The  six-leaved  blos- 
soms assume  the  most  wonderful  variety  of  form ;  their 
tracery  is  of  the  finest  frozen  gauze,  and  round  about  their 
corners  other  rosettes  of  smaller  dimensions  often  cling. 
Beauty  is  superposed  upon  beauty,  as  if  Nature,  once  com- 
mitted to  her  task,  took  delight  in  showing,  even  within  the 
narrowest  limits,  the  wealth  of  her  resources." 

EXERCISE 

The  following  compositions  ivere  written  hy  high  school 
pupils.  What  method  of  developmeyit  is  employ edf  Note 
particularly  any  violations  of  unity  and  coherence  both  in  the 
paragraphs  and  in  the  sentences. 

The  Sparrow's  First  Poem 

To  see  several  sparrows  on  the  rail  of  a  fence  has  always 
caused  me  to  smile  a  little,  for  it  reminds  me  of  so  many  small 
children  trying  to  recite  their  first  poem  in  unison.     They 


66  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

mount  the  platform,  fully  confident  of  themselves,  and  wait 
patiently  till  all  is  ready.  Suddenly  a  large,  overgrown  spar- 
row shows  signs  of  stage  fright,  and  with  fluttering  heart 
flies  away  and  does  not  make  his  appearance  again.  A  small, 
feeble  sparrow,  seeing  his  champion  has  departed,  gives  one 
chirp,  and  follows  the  leader,  but  returns  immediately,  having 
seen  the  angry  maternal  glances  from  yonder  tree.  Once 
again  all  is  ready.  Some  recite  as  loudly  as  their  lungs  will 
permit ;  others,  half  frightened  out  of  their  wits,  pipe  out  in  a 
shrill,  low  voice  ;  while  still  others  hurry  through  the  rhyme 
and  are  done  ere  their  companions  have  recited  tlie  first  verse. 
As  each  one  fiuishes,  he  rushes  off,  as  if  he  were  afraid  that 
he  would  not  get  there;  until  finally  all  are  gone  except  one, 
who  has  looked  bewildered  during  the  whole  performance. 
He  now  commences  the  poem  and  recites  it  without  hesita- 
tion. He  waits  a  moment  after  he  has  finished,  in  order  that 
his  audience  may  fully  appreciate  him,  before  he  walks  slowly 
and  deliberately  down  from  the  platform.  We  at  once  recog- 
nize him  as  the  class  orator  of  this  aerial  school,  and  we  are 
already  confirmed  that  he  will  make  a  fine  future  champion  to 
compete  with  the  noisy  blue  jays. 

A  Weird  Experience 

One  night  last  summer  I  had  an  experience  that  frightened 
me  so  badly  that  I  did  not  venture  out  alone  at  night  for  a  long 
time.  I  had  spent  the  evening  at  a  friend's  house,  a  distance 
from  the  town,  and  was  repaid  for  my  late  staying  by  having 
to  make  my  return  trip  along  a  lonely  country  road.  I  refused 
the  many  offers  to  "  see  ine  home,"  and  started  out  bravely, 
whistling  a  merry  tune,  my  memory  going  back  to  the  gay 
time  I  had  had  earlier  in  the  evening.  I  had  gone  a  short 
distance  and  had  passed  most  of  the  way  through  the  straggly 
woods  on  either  side  of  the  road  when  I  was  aroused  from  my 
thoughts  by  a  fearful  shriek.  Looking  ahead  I  saw  a  huge, 
misshapen  monster,  enveloped  in  a  ghostly  light,  slowly  near- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     67 

ing  me.  Its  large  eyes  shone  dim  and  horrible  through  the 
deep  shroud  of  night  that  enveloped  the  earth.  From  its 
gaping  mouth,  volumes  of  smoke  and  fire  shot  up  toward  the 
starry  firmament,  and  the  moon  shining  through  the  swaying 
branches  formed  a  fitting  tail  for  my  modern  dragon,  and 
showed  its  outlines  only  too  clearly  as  it  lurched  and  swayed 
over  the  uneven  ground.  With  a  cry  that  blended  strangely 
with  the  shrieks  and  snorts  that  filled  the  woods,  I  turned  and 
ran  with  all  speed  back  to  the  refuge  that  I  had  so  lately 
left.  I  breathlessly  poured  forth  my  story,  exaggerating  it  so 
greatly  that  curiosity  triumphed  over  all  other  emotions,  and 
when  we  heard  the  strange  sounds  again,  we  peeped  out  from 
behind  the  drawn  blinds  where  we  had  taken  refuge,  and  saw, 
not  the  terrible  being  that  I  had  described,  but  a  common 
threshing  machine.  It  is  needless  to  say  that  I  did  not  walk 
home  alone  that  night. 

The  Protector 

As  it  was  about  dark  one  evening  when  a  crowd  of  us 
slipped  into  an  orchard  to  get  some  apples,  an  important-look- 
ing tree,  which  stood  in  front  of  the  rest,  reminded  me  of  a 
policeman.  Like  an  officer,  he  was  tall  and  straight,  and  the 
yellow  apples  were,  in  my  imagination,  the  polished  buttons  of 
his  uniform.  The  branches  about  the  top  had  been  cut  by 
the  telephone  men  in  such  a  way  that,  viewed  from  a  dis- 
tance, the  appearance  of  the  whole  suggested  a  policeman's 
cap.  When  we  succeeded  in  getting  over  the  fence,  a  large 
limb,  resembling  a  policeman's  club,  swayed"  back  and 
forth  in  the  breeze  ;  but  seeing  we  did  not  heed  this  warning, 
he  summoned  a  near-by  confederate  (at  least  that  is  what  I 
thought,  when  I  heard  the  rustling  of  the  leaves),  just  as  a 
policeman  whistles  to  a  fellow-detective.  The  small  tree  near- 
est the  "watchman"  immediately  began  to  sway  its  branches 
frantically;  but  paying  no  attention  to  all  of  this,  we  pro- 
ceeded to  help  ourselves  to  the  fruit. 


68  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


A  Flock  of  Blackbirds 

Whenever  I  pass  a  flock  of  blackbirds,  their  unceasing  chat- 
ter and  excited  movements  make  me  think  of  the  members  of 
a  legislature,  met  in  a  very  noisy  session.  A  large  dignified 
bird  in  a  shiny  black  coat  seems  to  be  the  presiding  officer 
of  tlie  assembly,  while  a  very  excited  bird  standing  near  the 
speaker  must  be  the  whip  of  the  house.  The  birds  are  stand- 
ing around  their  leader,  collected  in  groups  like  politicians 
discussing  a  bill,  and  while  some  birds  are  telling  their  view 
of  the  question,  like  good  representatives,  others  are  standing 
around  not  seeming  to  realize  that  their  influence  should  be 
used  in  deciding  the  fate  of  the  bill.  The  birds  at  last  seem 
to  agree  to  an  adjournment,  and  after  a  few  orders  from  the 
speaker,  they  fly  away  still  chattering  and  arguing,  leaving 
only  a  few  stubborn  old  fellows  to  pour  out  their  grievances 
to  one  another,  as  if  they  were  badly  abused  senators. 

EXERCISE 

From  the  follotving  list  select  a  topic  and  develop  it  hy 
comparison: 

1.  Books  as  Playmates. 

2.  Wax  Figures. 

3.  The  School  Senate. 

4.  How  (any  game)  is  Played. 

5.  A  Description  of  a  Peculiar  Person. 

6.  Politics  is  a  Game  of  Chance. 

Contrast.  —  In  explain i no-  an  idea  we  frequently  find  it  as 
eftective  to  point  out  differences  as  it  is  to  note  similarities. 
White  suggests  black  ;  sweet  suggests  sour;  and  good  sug- 
gests had  ;  the  phrase,  modern  history,  suggests  its  opposite, 
ancient  history ;  each  can  be  explained  by  contrasting  it 
with  its  opposite.     Employing  this  method,  John  Henry 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  09 

Newman,  in  the  jDaragrapli  quoted  below,  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  speaking  good  sense  in  English  by  contrast- 
ing the  civilized  life  with  the  savage  life. 

"  The  advocates  of  professional  learning  will  smile  when  we 
tell  them  that  this  same  faculty  which  we  would  have  encour- 
aged is  simply  that  of  speaking  good  sense  in  English,  without 
fee  or  reward,  in  common  conversation.  They  will  smile  when 
we  lay  some  stress  upon  it;  but  in  reality  it  is  no  such  trifle 
as  they  imagine.  Look  into  the  huts  of  savages  and  see,  for 
there  is  nothing  to  listen  to,  the  dismal  blank  of  their  stupid 
hours  of  silence ;  their  professional  avocations  of  war  and 
hunting  are  over  ;  and,  having  nothing  to  do,  they  have  nothing 
to  say.  Turn  to  improved  life,  and  you  find  conversation  in 
all  its  forms  the  medium  of  something  more  than  an  idle  pleas- 
ure—  indeed,  a  very  active  agent  in  circulating  and  forming  the 
opinions,  tastes,  and  feelings  of  a  whole  people.  It  makes  of 
itself  a  considerable  affair.  Its  topics  are  the  most  promiscuous 
—  all  those  which  do  not  belong  to  any  particular  province. 
As  for  its  power  and  influence,  we  may  fairly  say  that  it  is  of 
just  the  same  consequence  to  a  man's  immediate  society,  how 
he  talks,  as  how  he  acts." 

EXERCISE 

Point  out  the  good  points  and  the  bad  points  in  the  para- 
graph structure  of  the  following  compositions,  developed  hy 
contrast. 

The  Boyhood  Days  of  Lincoln  and  Washington 

Lincoln's  early  advantages  in  education,  unlike  Washing- 
ton's, were  extremely  limited.  For  instance,  in  educational 
advantages,  Lincoln  could  appreciate  his  knowledge,  in  later 
years,  by  remembering  that  he  had  secured  it  by  his  own  hard 
labor  and  perseverance.  He  could  look  back  and  remember  the 
poor  instruments  he  had  to  learn  with,  —  a  poor  teacher,  who 
knew  only  a  little  ciphering  and  reading,  a  wooden  shovel  for 


70  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

a  tablet,  and  a  knife  for  a  pencil.  His  family  was  too  poor  to 
atford  candles  and  lamps,  so  Lincoln  went  to  bed  many  a  night 
with  poor,  tired,  strained  eyes,  caused  from  studying  by  lire- 
light.  On  the  other  hand,  Washington  had  all  tlu'  advantages 
in  education  that  any  boy  of  his  time  could  possibly  have  had. 
Wealthy  parents  furnished  private  tutors  and  private  schools 
for  him,  and  wealth  also  made  pencils,  paper,  and  an  extensive 
library  a  possibility  for  him.  He  never  had  to  remain  up  late 
at  night  studying  as  Lincoln  did.  He  had  no  other  task  dur- 
ing the  day  but  to  recite  and  study  his  lessons.  As  I  have  said, 
and  I  think  you  will  agree  with  me,  Lincoln's  early  advantages 
in  education,  compared  with  ^^'ashington's,  were  extremely  lim- 
ited. 

The  Chakacter  of  Richard  I  of  England 

The  real  character  of  the  crusading  hero  of  England,  Richard 
the  lion-hearted,  is  altogether  different  from  that  given  him  in 
books  and  poems.  Ruthless  and  cruel  in  personal  character, 
tyrannical  in  his  form  of  government,  caring  only  for  personal 
glory,  he  was  little  better  than  a  trooper  in  his  own  army.  He 
was  proud  of  his  skill  and  strength  as  a  knight,  and  only  went 
on  the  crusades  for  the  purpose  of  showing  off,  we  might  say. 
On  the  other  hand,  authors  and  poets  represent  him  as  the 
highest  ideal  of  a  mediaeval  knight,  a  veritable  Sir  Galahad. 
They  depict  him  as  deeply  religious,  as  polished  and  courtly  in 
manners  and  speech,  as  an  acconqjlished  musician,  and  as  gentle 
and  lenient  in  ])ersonal  character  as  a  great  warrior,  a  marvel- 
ous tactician,  and  a  fine  general.     AVhat  a  marked  contrast! 

Cause  and  Effect.  —  A  common  way  of  developing  a  para- 
graph theme  is  by  cause  and  eflfect.  This  may  be  done  in 
two  ways :  the  cause  may  be  stated  in  the  tojjic  sentence, 
followed  by  itemized  effects;  or  the  itemized  effects  may 
be  first  set  down,  followed  by  a  topic  sentence  which 
states  the  cause.  The  first  of  tliese  is  used  by  James  Rryce 
in  his  Anierican  ComtnotiweuUh  (chapter  LXXX}.      In  an- 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     71 

alyzing  certain  characteristics,  the  author  names,  among 
many  others,  the  hick  of  reverence  for  authority.  This  is 
followed  by  an  enumeration  of  effects. 

"Religion  apart,  they  are  an  unreverential  people.  I  do 
not  mean  irreverent,  —  far  from  it ;  nor  do  I  mean  that  they 
have  not  a  great  capacity  for  hero-worship,  as  they  have  many 
a  time  shown.  I  mean  that  they  are  little  disposed,  especially 
in  public  questions,  —  political,  economical,  or  social, — to  defer 
to  the  opinions  of  those  who  are  wiser  or  better  instructed  than 
themselves.  Everything  tends  to  make  the  individual  inde- 
pendent and  self-reliant.  He  goes  early  into  the  world;  he  is 
left  to  make  his  way  alone ;  he  tries  one  occupation  after 
another,  if  the  first  or  second  venture  does  not  prosper ;  he  gets 
to  think  that  each  man  is  his  own  best  helper  and  adviser. 
Thus  he  is  led,  I  will  not  say  to  form  his  own  opinions,  for 
even  in  Amej'ica  few  are  those  who  do  that,  but  to  fancy  that 
he  has  formed  them,  and  to  feel  little  need  of  aid  from  others 
towards  correcting  them.  There  is,  therefore,  less  disposition 
than  in  Europe  to  expect  light  and  leading  on  public  affairs 
from  speakers  or  writers.  Oratory  is  not  directed  towards  in- 
struction, but  towards  stimulation.  Special  knowledge,  which 
commands  deference  in  applied  science  or  in  finance,  does  not 
command  it  in  politics,  because  that  is  not  deemed  a  special 
subject,  but  one  within  the  comprehension  of  every  practical 
man.  Politics  is,  to  be  sure,  a  profession,  and  so  far  might 
seem  to  need  professional  aptitudes.  But  the  professional  poli- 
tician is  not  the  man  who  has  studied  statesmanship,  but  the 
man  who  has  practiced  the  art  of  running  conventions  and  win- 
ning elections."  ^ 

Find  a  paragraph  which  enumerates  a  series  of  effects, 
and  follows  these  by  a  sentence  which  explains  the  cause. 

1  Copyright,  1894,  by  Macmillaii  &  Co.     By  special  permission  of  the 
publishers. 


72  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Biu(r'ni<i  ill  inhi<l  ilw  varioNii  sw/t/cfifiotui  on  paragraph  de- 
velopment,, eomineut  upon  the  foUowiiin  fhe/iies.  Note  the 
method  of  development. 

The  Fall  of  Gaius  Gracchus 

The  attempt  to  enfranchise  all  of  the  allies  of  Kome  proved 
the  downfall  of  Gains  Gracchus,  the  democratic  tribune  of  Rome 
for  the  years  121  and  123  b.c.  When  the  proposal  of  Gaius  was 
placed  before  the  senate  of  Rome,  which  was  composed  mostly 
of  crafty  and  venal  men,  the  effect  upon  the  public  was  a  great 
surprise  to  Gaius  and  his  followers ;  for  the  equites,  a  noble 
class,  and  the  rabble  greatly  opposed  his  act,  which  the  great 
tribune  was  positive  of  making  a  new  law.  Immediately  the 
senators  and  equites  declared  that  Gaius,  whom  before  this  time 
they  had  always  honored,  was  trying  his  uttermost  to  take  away 
their  power ;  for  if  the  hated  Roman  allies  were  made  full- 
fledged  Roman  citizens,  their  votes  would  double  those  of  the 
selfish  aristocrats.  The  rabble  also  opposed  the  enfranchise- 
ment bill,  for  they  declared  that  Gaius  was  trying  to  lower 
their  standing  as  citizens  and  to  place  them  on  a  par  with 
mean,  low,  despisable,  and  ignorant  intruders.  Consequently, 
when  Gracchus  saw  the  attitude  of  the  people,  he  knew  that 
his  life  was  endangered.  He  then  gathered  together  his  few 
faithful  followers,  which,  indeed,  were  very  small  in  number, 
and  prepared  to  meet  the  maddened  rabble,  equites,  and  sena- 
tors who  were  then  plotting  against  him  and  were  offering 
a  liberal  reward  for  his  head.  Soon  Gaius  was  met  in  the 
Forum  by  the  angry  mob,  who  fought  violently  and  steadily 
for  the  capture  of  Gracchus.  The  terrible  hand  slaughter  was 
not  premeditated,  but  the  capture  of  Gracchus's  dead  body  and 
his  three  thousand  adherents  was  rejoiced  in  by  the  ignorant 
citizens  of  proud  Rome.  Although  the  murder  of  Gaius,  the 
despised  tribune,  was  at  first  a  cause  of  rejoicing,  it  finally 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  73 

ended  in  mourning  for  one  of  Rome's  foremost  tribunes  and 
reformers,  Gains  Gracclius,  one  of  tlie  distinguished  sons  of 
the  revered  Cornelia. 

An  Important  Reform 

NoTK.  —  The  following  paragraph  is  incoherent.  Rewrite  it  so  that  it 
will  be  coherent. 

Not  long  ago,  if  one  had  stepped  into  the  criminal  courts  of 
Denver,  Colorado,  he  would  probably  have  seen  a  number  of 
small  boys,  regular  little  "toughs,"  who  had  been  arrested 
mostly  for  stealing.  They  would  be  tried  and  sentenced  in  the 
same  way  as  the  older  criminals.  They  would  be  sent  to  the 
same  prison,  from  which,  after  their  term  had  expired,  they 
would  come  forth  just  as  bad  as  ever,  and  probably  worse  than 
before.  One  of  Denver's  prominent  citizens,  Judge  Lindsay, 
looked  into  the  records  of  the  boys  and  found  that  after  they 
had  once  been  sent  to  prison,  they  were  tenfold  wiser  in  sin, 
and  generally  they  returned  again  to  the  court  in  a  short  time. 
As  a  result  of  this  investigation,  the  Juvenile  Court  was  organ- 
ized with  Judge  Lindsay  at  its  head.  All  juvenile  cases  are 
tried  now  at  this  court.  If  the  judge  finds  that  the  boy  is  un- 
able to  resist  the  temptations  of  his  old  life,  he  sends  him  to 
the  reform  school  at  Golden.  Instead  of  feeling  defiant  towards 
him,  the  boys  regard  him  as  their  best  friend,  and  try  to  gain 
his  respect.  This  work  of  Judge  Lindsay's  has  had  an  impor- 
tant result.  Instead  of  the  number  of  criminals  increasing,  it 
has  steadily  decreased,  for  most  of  the  ringleaders  have  come 
in  contact  with  "de  kid's  jedge,"  as  they  call  him,  and  have  re- 
formed. Of  course  there  are  still  a  large  number  of  boys  who 
have  not  reformed,  but  the  effect  produced  by  the  juvenile  court 
proves  that  the  boys  can  be  persuaded  to  respect  the  law. 

EXERCISE 

Develoj)  the  following  topic  sentences  hy  enumerating  tli4 
effects  which  naturally  folloiv  the  statement  of  the  cause. 


74  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

1.  Tnterurban  traffic  is  helping  to  destroy  the  differences 
between  city  and  country  people. 

2.  One  cause  of  the  Civil  War  was  the  lack  of  intercourse 
between  the  people  of  the  Korth  and  those  of  the  South. 

3.  The  difficulty  of  securing  servants  helps  to  develop 
laundries  and  bakeries. 

4.  xVn  efficient  street  railway  service  is  important  to 
every  city. 

Proofs.  —  A  writer  in  developing- an  argumentative  para- 
graph will  probably  employ  the  method  of  proofs.  The 
topic  sentence  contains  the  proposition ;  the  remaining 
sentences  contain  the  statements  which  prove  the  truth  of 
the  proposition  and  which  lielp  to  convince  the  readers. 
The  topic  sentence  may  be  found  at  the  beginning  or  at 
the  end  of  the  paragraph. 

Repetition.  — One  of  the  commonest  methods  of  develop- 
ment used  by  mature  writers  is  that  of  repeating  the  topic 
sentence.  A  writer  phrases  the  central  thought  of  a 
paragraph,  then  continues  by  repeating  this  thought  in 
other  words.  A  single  statement  of  the  bare  idea  will,  he 
thinks,  not  be  understood;  to  drive  his  meaning  home  to 
each  reader  he  rephrases  this  idea  in  various  ways,  and 
presents  it  wdtli  cumulative  effect.  Thus  the  central 
thought  is  turned  and  returned  until  all  the  important 
aspects  are  revealed.  The  following  example  from 
Greenough  and  Kittredge's  Words  and  their  Wai/s  in 
English  Speech  illustrates  this  repetition : 

"The  terms  'popular'  and  'learned 'as  applied  to  words 
are  not  absolute  definitions.  No  two  persons  have  the  same 
stock  of  words,  and  the  same  word  may  be  'popular'  in  one 
man's  vocabulary  and  '  learned '  in  another's.  There  are  also 
different  grades  of  '  popidarity ' ;  indeed,  there  is  in  reality  a 
continuous    gradation  from  infantile  words  like  mamma  and 


THE    PARAGRAPH    AND    ITS    STRUCTURE  75 

papa  to  such  erudite  derivatives  as  concatenation  and  cataclysm. 
Still  the  divisiou  into  '  learned '  and  '  pojjular  '  is  convenient 
and  sound.  Disputes  may  arise  as  to  the  classification  of  any 
particular  word,  but  there  can  be  no  difference  of  opinion  about 
the  general  principle.  We  must  be  careful,  however,  to  avoid 
misconception.  When  we  call  a  word  *  popular, '  we  do  not 
mean  that  it  is  a  favorite  word,  but  simply  that  it  belongs  to 
the  people  as  a  whole,  —  that  is,  it  is  everybody's  word,  not 
the  possession  of  a  limited  number.  When  we  call  a  word 
'learned,'  we  do  not  mean  that  it  is  used  by  scholars  alone, 
but  simply  that  its  presence  in  the  English  vocabulary  is  due 
to  books  and  the  cultivation  of  literature  rather  than  to  the 
actual  needs  of  ordinary  conversation." 

Note.  —  Pupils  developing  paragraphs  by  this  method  should  see  that 
each  repetition  contributes  to  clearness  and  makes  a  distinct  advance  in 
the  unfolding  of  the  thought. 

EXERCISES 

T.    Sow   would   you    imjjrove   the  following   composition 

ivritten  hy  a  liigli  school  pupil? 

Physical  Training 

Physical  training  should  be  compulsory  in  all  high  schools. 
The  school  board  should  make  it  a  part  of  the  course.  If  not 
taken  for  the  pleasure  of  the  work,  it  should  be  taken  for  the 
training  it  gives  one,  and  for  the  help  it  gives  to  physical  defects. 
It  makes  one  attentive  and  obedient,  and  enables  one  to  think 
quickly  and  precisely.  As  a  member  of  one  of  the  classes  of 
the  school,  I  think  it  would  be  of  great  benefit  to  every  member 
of  our  school  to  take  gymnasium  work. 

II.  Take  one  of  the  folhnving  topic  sentences  and  develop 
it  hy  the  method  you  prefer : 

1.  Reading  helps  ns  to  understand  human  nature. 

2.  Social  pleasures  are  natural  for  pupils  in  school. 


76  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

3.  Continued  practice  makes  writing  easier. 

4.  Too  much  newspaper  reading  is  harmful. 

5.  A  pupil  in  the  high  school  needs  to  develop  his  sense 
of  personal  responsibility. 

6.  The  study  of  Latin  helps  me  in  my  English  Avork. 

7.  Oral  composition  helps  me  in  my  history  work. 

8.  Eacli  season  brings  its  special  pleasures. 

9.  A  single  test  is  not  sufficient  to  determine  a  pupil's 
standing. 

III.  Bead  the  foUowinr/  pai'agraphs  selected  from  the 
ivritings  of  tvell-ktiown  authors.  Observe  the  manner  in 
which  each  paragraph  is  developed.  In  which  paragraphs 
is  unity  7nost  pt'ominent?  In  wMcJl,  coherence  ?  In  which, 
emphasis?  Select  from  these  passages  model  sentences  which 
might  serve  as  topic  sentences  of  other  par ag rajahs.  Develop 
certain  of  these  topic  soitences. 

A  great  chapter  of  the  history  of  the  world  is  written  in  the 
chalk.  Few  passages  in  the  history  of  man  can  be  supported 
by  such  an  overwhelming  mass  of  direct  and  indirect  evidence 
as  that  which  testifies  to  the  truth  of  the  fragment  of  the 
history  of  the  globe  which  I  hope  to  enable  you  to  read  with 
your  own  eyes  to-night.  Let  me  add  that  few  chapters  of 
human  history  have  a  more  profound  significance  for  our- 
selves. I  weigh  my  words  well  when  I  assert  that  the  man 
who  should  know  the  true  history  of  the  bit  of  chalk  which 
every  carpenter  carries  about  in  his  breeches  pocket,  though 
ignorant  of  all  other  history,  is  likely,  if  he  will  think  his 
knowledge  out  to  its  ultimate  results,  to  have  a  truer  and 
therefore  a  better  conception  of  this  wonderful  universe,  and 
of  man's  relation  to  it,  than  the  most  learned  student  who  is 
deep-read  in  the  records  of  humanity  and  ignorant  of  those 
of  Nature.  —  IIuxlkv  :  Lay  Sci'mons,  Addresses,  and  Revieics. 

That  morning's  march  was  one  not  to  be  forgotten.  It  led 
us  through  a  sublime  waste,  a  wilderness  of  mountains  and 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  77 

pine  forests,  over  wliich  the  spirit  of  loneliness  and  silence 
seemed  brooding.  Above  and  below,  little  could  be  seen  but 
the  same  dark  green  foliage.  It  overspread  the  valleys  and 
enveloped  the  mountains,  from  the  black  rocks  that  crowned 
their  summits  to  the  streams  that  circled  round  their  base.  I 
rode  to  the  top  of  a  hill  whence  I  could  look  down  on  the 
savage  procession  as  it  passed  beneath  my  feet,  and,  far  on 
the  left,  could  see  its  thin  and  broken  line,  visible  only  at 
intervals,  stretching  away  for  miles  among  the  mountains. 
On  the  farthest  ridge,  horsemen  Avere  still  descending  like 
mere  specks  in  the  distance. — Parkman  :  The  Oregon  Trail. 

We  have  not  in  Emerson  a  great  poet,  a  great  writer,  a  great 
philosophy-maker.  His  relation  to  us  is  not  that  of  one  of 
those  personages,  yet  it  is  a  relation  of,  I  think,  even  superior 
importance.  His  relation  to  us  is  more  like  that  of  the  Roman 
Emperor  Marcus  Aurelius.  Marcus  Aurelius  is  not  a  great 
writer,  a  great  philosophy-maker;  he  is  the  friend  and  aider 
of  those  who  would  live  in  the  spirit.  Emerson  is  the  same. 
He  is  the  friend  and  aider  of  those  who  would  live  in  the 
spirit.  All  the  points  in  thinking  which  are  necessary  for  this 
purpose  he  takes,  but  he  does  not  combine  them  into  a  system, 
or  present  them  as  a  regular  philosophy.  Combined  in  a  sys- 
tem by  a  man  with  the  requisite  talent  for  this  kind  of  thing, 
they  would  be  less  useful  than  as  Emerson  gives  them  to  us ; 
and  the  man  with  the  talent  so. to  systematize  them  would  be 
less  impressive  than  Emerson. 

—  Matthew  Arnold  :  Essay  on  Emerson. 

We  are  here  arrived  at  the  crisis  of  Burns's  life ;  for  mat- 
ters had  now  taken  such  a  shape  with  him  as  could  not  long 
continue.  If  improvement  was  not  to  be  looked  for,  Nature 
could  only  for  a  limited  time  maintain  this  dark  and  madden- 
ing warfare  against  the  world  and  itself.  We  are  not  medi- 
cally informed  whether  any  continuance  of  years  was,  at  this 
period,  probable  for  Burns ;  whether  his  death  is  to  be  looked 


78  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

on  as  in  some  sense  an  accidental  event,  or  only  as  the  natural 
consequence  of  the  long  series  of  events  that  had  preceded. 
The  latter  seems  to  be  the  likelier  opinion,  and  yet  it  is  by  no 
means  a  certain  one.  At  all  events,  as  we  have  said,  some 
change  could  not  be  very  distant.  Three  gates  of  deliverance, 
it  seems  to  us,  were  open  for  ]5urns :  clear  poetical  activity, 
madness,  or  death.  The  first,  with  longer  life,  was  still  pos- 
sible, though  not  probable,  for  physical  causes  were  beginning 
to  be  concerned  in  it;  and  yet  Burns  had  an  iron  resolution; 
could  he  but  have  seen  and  felt  that  not  only  his  highest 
glory,  but  his  first  duty,  and  the  true  medicine  of  all  his  woes, 
lay  here.  The  second  was  still  less  probable ;  for  his  mind  was 
ever  among  the  clearest  and  firmest.  So  the  milder  third  gate 
was  oj)ened  for  him ;  and  he  passes,  not  softly,  yet  speedily, 
into  that  still  country  where  the  hailstorms  and  fire  showers 
do  not  reach,  and  the  heaviest-laden  wayfarer  at  length  lays 
down  his  load  !  —  Caulym;  :  Essay  on  Burns. 

Though  they  dwelt  in  such  a  solitude,  these  people  held 
daily  converse  Avith  the  world.  The  romantic  pass  of  the 
Notch  is  a  great  artery,  through  which  the  life  blood  of 
internal  commerce  is  continually  throbbing  between  Maine 
on  one  side  and  the  Green  Mountains  and  the  shores  of  the 
St.  Lawrence  on  the  other.  The  stagecoach  always  drew  up 
before  the  door  of  the  cottage.  The  wayfarer,  with  no  com- 
panion but  his  staff,  paused  here  to  exchange  a  word,  that  the 
sense  of  loneliness  might  not  utterly  overcome  him  ere  he 
could  pass  through  the  cleft  of  the  mountain  or  reach  the  first 
house  in  the  valley.  And  here  the  teamster,  on  his  way  to 
Portland  market,  would  put  up  for  the  night ;  and,  if  a  bache- 
lor, might  sit  an  hour  beyond  the  usual  bedtime  and  steal  a 
kiss  from  the  moiuitain  maid  at  parting.  It  was  one  of  those 
primitive  taverns  where  the  traveler  pays  only  for  food  and 
lodging,  but  meets  with  a  homely  kindness  beyond  all  price. 
When  the  footsteps  were  heard,  therefore,  between  the  outer 
door  and  the  inner  one,  the  whole  family  rose  up,  —  grand- 


THE    PARAGRAPH    AND    ITS    STRUCTURE  79 

mother,  children,  and  all,  —  as  if  about  to  welcome  some  one 
who  belonged  to  them  and  whose  fate  was  linked  with  theirs. 

—  Hawthorne  :   Tlie  Ambitious  Guest. 

Thornton's  command  cracked  out  like  a  pistol  shot.  Buck 
threw  himself  forward,  tightening  the  traces  with  a  jarring 
lunge.  His  whole  body  was  gathered  compactly  together  in 
the  tremendous  effort,  the  muscles  writhing  and  knotting  like 
live  things  under  the  silky  fur.  His  great  chest  was  low  to  the 
ground,  his  head  forward  and  down,  while  his  feet  were  flying 
like  mad,  the  claws  scarring  the  hard-packed  snow  in  parallel 
grooves.  The  sled  swayed  and  trembled,  half  started  forward. 
One  of  his  feet  slipped,  and  one  man  groaned  aloud.  Then  the 
sled  lurched  ahead  in  what  appeared  a  rapid  succession  of 
jerks,  though  it  really  never  came  to  a  dead  stoj)  again  —  half 
an  inch  —  an  inch  —  two  inches  —  the  jerks  perceptibly  dimin- 
ished ;  as  the  sled  gained  momentum,  he  caught  them  up,  till 
it  was  moving  steadily  along. — Jack  London  :  Call  of  the  Wild. 

Students  are  apt  to  regard  this  theory  as  rather  a  vague 
matter.  They  seem  to  feel,  when  they  are  called  upon  to 
study  the  subject,  that  they  are  required  to  grasp  an  abstrac- 
tion. This  is  much  like  the  terror  of  a  child  in  the  dark. 
The  principles  Avhich  determine  the  division  of  a  composition 
into  paragraphs  are  no  more  vague  than  those  which  deter- 
mine the  division  of  a  paragraph  into  sentences.  In  the  one 
case  we  measure  by  the  unit  of  a  single  idea,  and  in  the  other 
by  the  unit  of  a  grouj)  of  ideas.  The  sentence,  in  other  words, 
is  the  unit  of  idea;  the  paragraph  the  unit  of  thought.  Into 
a  sentence  we  put  the  expression  of  one  idea,  if  that  word  may 
here  be  used  to  express  the  single  members  of  a  full  thought. 
All  the  ideas  which  must  go  together  to  make  up  that  com- 
plete thought  are  then  gathered  into  a  paragraph.  The  process 
may  sound  artificial,  but  it  is  really  definite  and  practical. 

—  Arlo  Bates  :   Talks  on  Writing  English. 

Yet,  ignorant  as  Goldsmith  was,  few  writers  have  done  more 
to  make  the  first  steps  in  the  laborious  road  to  knowledge  easy 


80  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

and  2:)leasant.  His  compilations  are  widely  distinguished  from 
the  com})ilations  of  ordinary  bookmakers.  He  was  a  great, 
perhaps  an  unequaled,  master  of  the  arts  of  selection  and 
condensation.  In  these  respects  his  histories  of  Rome  and  of 
England,  and  still  more  his  own  abridgments  of  these  histo- 
ries, well  deserve  to  be  studied.  In  general,  nothing  is  less 
attractive  than  an  epitome;  but  the  epitomes  of  Goldsmith, 
even  when  most  concise,  are  always  amusing,  and  to  read  them 
is  considered  by  intelligent  children  not  as  a  task,  but  as  a 
pleasure.  —  Macaulat  :  Essay  on  Goldsmith. 

The  figure  of  that  charming  young  lady  forms  one  of  the 
prettiest  recollections  of  Goldsmith's  life.  She  and  her  beau- 
tiful sister,  who  married  Bunbury,  the  graceful  and  humorous 
amateur  artist  of  those  days,  when  Gilray  had  but  just  begun 
to  try  his  powers,  were  among  the  kindest  and  dearest  of  Gold- 
smith's many  friends:  cheered  and  pitied  him,  traveled  abroad 
with  him,  made  him  welcome  at  their  home,  and  gave  liini 
many  a  pleasant  holiday.  He  bought  his  finest  clothes  to 
figure  at  their  country  house  at  Barton;  he  wrote  them  droll 
verses.  They  loved  him,  laughed  at  him,  played  him  tricks, 
and  made  him  happy.  He  asked  for  a  loan  from  Garrick,  and 
Garrick  kindly  supplied  him,  to  enable  him  to  go  to  Barton  ; 
but  there  were  to  be  no  more  holidays,  jand  only  one  brief  strug- 
gle more  for  poor  Goldsmith.  A  lock  of  his  hair  was  taken 
from  the  coffin  and  given  to  the  Jessamy  ]?ride.  She  lived 
quite  into  our  time.  Hazlitt  saw  her,  an  old  lady,  but  beau- 
tiful still,  in  Northcote's  painting  room,  who  told  the  eager 
critic  how  proud  she  always  was  that  Goldsmith  had  admired 
her.  —  Thackeray  :  Essay  on  GoUlsmith  in  EnrjUsh  Humourists  of  the 
Eighteenth  Century. 

AVhat  is  it  that  we  mean  by  literature?  Po]-»ularly,  and 
amongst  the  thoughtless,  it  is  held  to  include  everything  that 
is  printed  in  a  book.  Little  logic  is  required  to  disturb  that 
definition.     The  most  thoughtless  person  is  easily  made  aware 


THE   PARAGRAPH   AND   ITS   STRUCTURE  81 

that  in  the  idea  of  literature  one  essential  element  is  some 
relation  to  a  general  and  common  interest  of  man,  so  that  what 
applies  only  to  a  local  or  professional,  or  merely  personal 
interest,  even  though  presenting  itself  in  the  shape  of  a  book, 
will  not  belong  to  literature.  So  far  the  definition  is  easily 
narrowed,  and  it  is  as  easily  expanded.  For  not  only  is  much 
that  takes  a  station  in  books  not  literature,  but,  inversely, 
much  that  really  is  literature  never  reaches  a  station  in  books. 
The  weekly  sermons  of  Christendom,  that  vast  pulpit  litera- 
ture which  acts  so  extensively  upon  the  popular  mind — to 
warn,  to  uphold,  to  renew,  to  comfort,  to  alarm  —  does  not 
attain  the  sanctuary  of  libraries  in  the  ten-thousandth  part 
of  its  extent.  The  drama,  again,  as  for  instance  the  finest 
of  Shakespeare's  plays  in  England,  and  all  leading  Athenian 
plays  in  the  noontide  of  the  Attic  stage,  operated  as  a  literature 
on  the  public  mind,  and  were  (according  to  the  strictest  letter 
of  that  term)  published  through  the  audience  that  witnessed 
their  representation,  some  time  before  they  were  published  as 
things  to  be  read;  and  they  were  published  in  this  scenical 
mode  of  publication  with  much  more  effect  than  they  could 
have  had  as  books  during  ages  of  costly  copying  or  of  costly 
printing.  —  De  Quincey:   The  Poetry  of  Pope. 

We  now  worked  in  earnest,  and  never  did  I  pass  ten  minutes 
of  more  intense  excitement.  During  this  interval  we  had 
fairly  unearthed  an  oblong  chest  of  wood,  which  from  its 
perfect  preservation  and  wonderful  hardness  had  j)lainly  been 
subjected  to  some  mineralizing  process — perhaps  that  of  the 
bichloride  of  mercury.  This  box  was  three  feet  and  a  half  long, 
three  feet  broad,  and  two  and  a  half  feet  deep.  It  was  firmly 
secured  by  bands  of  wrought  iron,  riveted,  and  forming  a  kind 
of  open  trellis  work  over  the  whole.  On  each  side  of  the  chest, 
near  the  top,  were  three  rings  of  iron, —  six  in  all, — by 
means  of  which  a  firm  hold  could  be  obtained  by  six  persons. 
Our  utmost  united  endeavors  served  only  to  disturb  the  cofi:er 
very  slightly  in  its  bed.     We  at  once  saw  the  impossibility  of 


82  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

removing  so  great  a  weight.  Luckily,  the  sole  fastening  of 
the  lid  consisted  of  two  sliding  bolts.  These  we  drew  back 
— trembling  and  panting  with  anxiety.  In  an  instant,  a  treas- 
ure of  incalculable  value  lay  gleaming  before  us.  As  the  rays 
of  the  lanterns  fell  within  the  pit,  there  flashed  upwards  a 
glow  and  a  glare,  from  a  confused  heap  of  gold  and  jewels, 
that  absolutely  dazzled  our  eyes.  —  Poe  :  Gold-Bug. 

Under  a  lighter  disguise,  the  same  principle  of  Love,  which 
we  have  recognized  as  the  great  characteristic  of  Burns  and 
of  all  true  poets,  occasionally  manifests  itself  in  the  shape 
of  Humor.  Everywhere,  indeed,  in  his  sunny  moods,  a  full 
buoyant  flood  of  mirth  rolls  through  the  mind  of  Burns ;  he 
rises  to  the  high,  and  stoops  to  the  low,  and  is  brother  and 
playmate  to  all  Nature.  We  speak  not  of  his  bold  and  often 
irresistible  faculty  of  caricature;  for  this  is  Drollery  rather 
than  Humor:  but  a  much  tenderer  sportfulness  dwells  in  him, 
and  comes  forth  here  and  there,  in  evanescent  and  beautiful 
touches ;  as  in  his  Address  to  the  Mouse,  or  the  Farmer's 
Mare,  or  his  Elegy  on  poor  Mailie,  which  last  may  be  reckoned 
his  happiest  effort  of  this  kind.  In  these  pieces  there  are 
traits  of  a  Humor  as  fine  as  that  of  Sterne ;  yet  altogether 
different,  original,  peculiar — tlie  Humor  of  Burns. 

—  Caui-yle  :   Esffay  on  Burns. 

The  whole  thing  was  come  and  gone  in  a  breath,  liefore 
Herrick  could  turn  about,  before  Davis  could  complete  his  cry 
of  horror,  the  clerk  lay  in  the  sand,  sprawling  and  convulsed. 
Attwater  ran  to  the  body;  he  stooped  and  viewed  it;  he  put 
his  finger  in  the  vitriol,  and  his  face  whitened  and  hardened 
with  anger.  Davis  had  not  yet  moved;  he  stood  astonished, 
with  his  back  to  the  figurehead,  his  hands  clutching  it  behind 
him,  his  body  inclined  forward  from  the  waist.  Attwater 
turned  deliberately  and  covered  him  with  his  rifle.  "Davis," 
he  cried,  in  a  voice  like  a  trumpet,  "I  give  you  sixty  seconds 
to  make  your  peace  with  God."  Davis  looked,  and  his  mind 
awoke.     He  did  not  dream  of  self-defense,  he  did  not  reach 


THE  PARAGRAPH  AND  ITS  STRUCTURE     83 

for  his  pistol.     He  drew  liimself  up  instead  to  face  death,  with 
a  quivering  nostril.  —  Stevenson:  Ehb-Tide. 

"  Now,  men,"  said  he,  "  do  you  hear  me  ?  "  There  was  no 
answer  from  the  forecastle.  "It's  to  you,  Abraham  Gray — 
it's  to  you  I  am  speaking."  Still  no  reply.  "  Gray,"  resumed 
Mr.  Smollett,  a  little  louder,  "  I  am  leaving  this  ship,  and  I 
order  you  to  follow  your  captain.  I  know  you  are  a  good 
man  at  bottom,  and  I  daresay  not  one  of  the  lot  of  you's  as 
bad  as  he  makes  out.  I  have  my  watch  here  in  my  ha,nd ;  I 
give  you  thirty  seconds  to  join  me  in."  There  was  a  pause. 
"Come,  my  fine  fellow,"  continued  the  captain,  "don't  hang 
so  long  in  stays.  I'm  risking  my  life,  and  the  lives  of  these 
good  gentlemen  every  second."  There  was  a  sudden  scuf&e, 
a  sound  of  blows,  and  out  burst  Abraham  Gray  with  a  knife- 
cut  on  the  side  of  the  cheek,  and  came  running  to  the  captain 
like  a  dog  to  the  whistle.  "  I'm  with  you,  sir,"  said  he.  And 
the  next  inoment  he  and  the  captain  had  dropped  aboard  of 
us,  and  we  had  shoved  off  and  given  way.  We  were  clear 
out  of  the  ship ;  but  not  yet  ashore  in  our  stockade. 

—  Stevenson:   Treasure  Island. 

I  descended  a  little  on  the  side  of  that  delicious  vale,  sur- 
veying it  with  a  secret  kind  of  pleasure,  though  mixed  with 
my  other  afflicting  thoughts,  to  think  that  this  was  all  my 
own ;  that  I  was  king  and  lord  of  all  this  country  indefeasibly, 
and  had  a  right  of  possession,  and,  if  I  could  convey  it,  I 
might  have  it  in  inheritance  as  completely  as  any  lord  or  manor 
in  England.  I  saw  here  abundance  of  cocoa  trees,  orange,  and 
lemon,  and  citron  trees;  but  all  wild,  and  very  few  bearing 
any  fruit,  at  least  not  then.  However,  the  green  limes  that 
I  gathered  were  not  only  pleasant  to  eat,  but  very  wholesome; 
and  I  mixed  their  juice  afterwards  with  water,  which  made 
it  very  wholesome,  and  very  cool  and  refreshing.  I  found 
noAV  I  had  business  enough  to  gather  and  carry  home,  and 
I  resolved  to  lay  up  a  store,  as  well  of  grapes  as  limes  and 
lemons  to  furnish  myself  for  the  wet  season,  which  I  knew 


84  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

was  approaching.  In  order  to  do  tliis,  I  gathered  a  great 
heap  of  grapes  in  one  place,  and  a  lesser  heap  in  anotlier  place, 
and  a  great  parcel  of  limes  and  lemons  in  another  place;  and, 
taking  a  few  of  each  with  me,  I  traveled  homeward,  and 
resolved  to  come  again,  and  bring  a  bag  or  sack,  or  what  I 
could  make,  to  carry  the  rest  home.  Accordingly,  having 
spent  three  days  in  this  journey,  I  came  home  (so  I  must 
now  call  my  tent  and  my  cave) ;  but  before  I  got  hither,  the 
grapes  were  spoiled,  the  richness  of  the  fruits  and  the  weight 
of  the  juice  having  broken  them  and  bruised  them,  they  were 
good  for  little  or  nothing;  as  to  the  limes,  they  were  good, 
but  I  could  bring  but  a  few.  —  Defoe  :  Bobinson  Crusoe. 

It  happened  one  day,  about  noon,  going  towards  my  boat, 
I  Avas  exceedingly  sur})rised  with  the  print  of  a  man's  naked 
foot  on  the  shore,  which  was  very  plain  to  be  seen  in  the 
sand.  I  stood  like  one  thunderstruck,  or  as  if  I  had  seen  an 
apparition.  I  listened,  I  looked  round  me,  I  could  hear  noth- 
ing, nor  see  anything.  I  went  up  to  a  rising  ground,  to  look 
farther.  I  went  up  the  shore,  and  down  the  shore,  but  it  was 
all  one;  I  could  see  no  other  impression  but  that  one.  I 
went  to  it  again  to  see  if  there  were  any  more,  and  to  observe 
if  it  might  not  be  my  fancy;  but  there  was  no  room  for  that, 
for  there  was  exactly  the  very  print  of  a  foot,  —  toes,  heel,  and 
every  part  of  a  foot.  How  it  came  thither  I  knew  not,  nor 
could  in  the  least  imagine.  But  after  innumerable  fluttering 
thoughts,  like  a  man  perfectly  confused  and  out  of  myself, 
I  came  home  to  my  fortification,  not  feeling,  as  we  say,  the 
ground  I  went  on,  but  terrified  to  the  last  degree,  looking 
behind  me  at  every  two  or  three  steps,  mistaking  every  bush 
and  tree,  and  fancying  every  stump  at  a  distance  to  be  a 
man;  nor  is  it  possil)le  to  describe  how  many  various  shapes 
affrighted  imagination  represented  things  to  me  in,  how  many 
wild  ideas  were  found  every  moment  in  my  fancy,  and  what 
strange,  unaccountable  whimsies  came  into  my  thoughts  by  the 
way.  —  Defoe:  liobinson  Crusoe. 


CHAPTER   III 

THE   SENTENCE 

Since  the  sentence  is  an  important  unit  of  expression, 
both  in  written  and  in  oral  composition,  we  must,  if  we  are 
to  write  and  speak  correctly  and  effectively,  understand 
the  grammatical  and  rhetorical  principles  underlying  good 
sentence  structure. 

Grammar  deals  mainly  with  the  relations  which  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  should  bear  to  one  another  in  sen- 
tences ;  thus  it  gives  us  the  principles  underlying  correct 
sentence  structure.  Rhetoric,  which  deals  with  the  sen- 
tence as  a  part  of  a  larger  unit,  —  the  paragraph, — strives 
to  make  the  sentence  express  the  writer's  thought  so  ex- 
actly that  the  reader  will  get  the  precise  thought  which 
is  in  the  writer's  mind.  Thus  rhetoric  gives  us  the  prin- 
ciples underlying  effective  sentence  structure. 

The  sentence  as  a  unit  in  grammar  is  partially  under- 
stood. The  purpose  of  this  chapter  is  to  discuss  the 
sentence  more  fully  in  this  aspect,  and,  in  addition,  to 
discuss  its  rhetorical  classification.  In  chapter  IV  we 
study  the  qualities  essential  to  good,  effective  sentence 
structure. 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  PHRASE,  CLAUSE,  AND  SENTENCE 

In  what  respect  are  the  following  groups  of  words  alike  ? 
In  what  respect  are  they  different  ? 
A.    1.    At  the  ringing  of  the  bell. 

85 


86  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

2.  When  the  bell  rang. 

3.  The  bell  rang. 

B.  1.    Hurrying  to  and  fro  in  great  confusion. 

2.  As  they  hurried  to  and  fro  in  great  confusion. 

3.  They  hurried  to  and  fro  in  great  confusion. 

C.  1.    To  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

2.  If  thou  lovest  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

3.  Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 

Groups  1,  2,  and  3  of  each  division  (J.,  B,  and  (7)  are 
alike  in  that  the  words  in  each  are  grammatically  united 
and  they  express  distinct  ideas. 

Groups  1  and  2  of  each  division  are  alike  in  one  respect  : 
the  ideas  expressed  in  both  are  subordinate  to  some  other 
ideas  with  which  they  are  intended  to  be  associated. 
They  are  only  parts  of  sentences  and  they  depend  upon 
other  parts  for  their  meaning. 

Groups  2  and  3  are  alike  in  that  both  have  a  subject  and 
a  predicate. 

Group  1  differs  from  group  2  in  that  the  former  lacks 
a  subject  and  a  predicate. 

Group  3  differs  from  1  and  2  in  this  essential  respect :  the 
words  in  this  group  arc  so  united  as  to  make  complete 
sense  —  they  do  not  depend  upon  other  words  or  groups  of 
words  for  their  meaning. 

Group  1  of  each  division  is  called  a  phrase  because  it  is 
a  group  of  words  without  a  subject  or  a  predicate,  gram- 
matically united  and  expressing  a  distinct  idea  without 
making  complete  sense. 

Group  2  is  called  a  clause;  for  although  it  has  a  subject 
and  a  predicate,  it  is  only  part  of  a  sentence. 

Group  3  is  called  a  sentence  because  it  is  a  group  of 
words  grammatically  united  and  making  complete  sense. 
Pupils  who  have  not  learned  to  distinguish  phrases  and 


THE   SENTENCE  87 

clauses  from  sentences  often  make  the  mistake  of  setting 
off  groups  of  words  which  express  only  subordinate  ideas 
as  if  such  groups  were  sentences.  It  is  not  unusual,  for 
instance,  for  illiterate  writers  to  place  a  period  at  the  end 
of  such  introductory  phrases  and  clauses  as  : 

Just  as  Magua,  who  was  fleeing  for  his  life,  jumped  from 
a  high  cliff. 

A  good  way  of  avoiding  this  very  bad  error  is  to  apply 
persistently  to  every  doubtful  group  of  words  this  common 
test:  Does  the  group  make  complete  sense?  Another 
good  way  to  distinguish  phrases  and  dependent  clauses 
from  statements  is  to  observe  introductory  words  and  sub- 
ordinating connectives.  For  instance,  prepositions,  and 
often  infinitives  and  participles,  indicate  phrases ;  and  the 
subordinating  connectives,  such  as  zf,  because,  altJwuc/h, 
and  unless,  used  to  introduce  clauses,  are  signs  of  de- 
pendent clauses. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Classify  into  phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences  the  fol- 
lowing groups  of  ivords : 

1.  As  the  valiant  knight,  clad  in  glittering  armor  from 
head  to  foot,  rode  proudly  across  the  drawbridge. 

2.  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds  communion 
with  her  visible  forms. 

3.  After  waiting  two  hours  in  the  gloomy  station. 

4.  That  all  men  are  endowed  by  their  creator  with  certain 
inalienable  rights. 

5.  Silently  one  by  one  in  the  infinite  meadows  of  Heaven 
Blossom    the    lovely    stars,    the    forget-me-nots    of    the 

angels. 

6.  As  long  as  the  rivers  flow  into  the  sea  and  the  shadows 
traverse  the  rounded  sides'of  the  mountains. 


88  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

7.  Beneath  yon  rugged  elm,  that  yew  tree's  shade, 
Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  moldering  heap. 

8.  When  Spring  with  dewy  fingers  cold, 
Keturns  to  deck  their  hallowed  mold. 

9.  Along  the  cool  sequestered  vale  of  life 
They  kept  the  noiseless  tenor  of  their  Avay. 

10.  Unaffrighted  by  the  silence  round  them, 
Undistraeted  at  the  sights  they  see. 

11.  Tho'  all  but  him  had  fled. 

12.  Singing  merrily  on  its  way  thro'  vale  and  meadow. 

13.  Where  flowers  bloom  in  great  profusion. 

14.  Where  are  the  flowers  that  lately  bloomed  in  such 
profusion  ? 

15.  In  the  world's  broad  field  of  battle, 
In  the  bivouac  of  life, 

Be  not  like  dumb  driven  cattle, 
]^)e  a  hero  in  the  strife. 

II.  lo  Indicate  hy  punctuation  and  capitalization  the 
sentences  in  the  followinc/  selection. 

2.  Make  lists  of  the  phrases  and  of  the  dependent  clauses 
in  the  paragraph. 

3.  Tell  the  part  of  speech  of  the  introductory  word  in 
each  phrase. 

4.  What  relation  is  shoivn  hy  the  introductory  word  in 
each  clause  ? 

5.  Punctuate  and  capit<dize  the  foUowiny  par(iyr((ph 
carefully : 

One  afternoon  last  summer  while  walking  along  Washington 
street  my  eye  was  attracted  by  a  signboard  protruding  over  a 
narrow  archway  nearly  opposite  the  old  south  church  the  sign 
represented  the  front  of  a  stately  edifice  which  was  designated 
as  the  old  province  house  kept  by  thomas  waite  i  was  glad  to 
be  thus  reminded  of  a  purpose  long  entertained  of  visiting  and 


THE   SENTENCE  89 

rambling  over  the  mansion  of  the  old  royal  governors  of  massa- 
chusetts  and  entering  the  arched  passage  which  penetrated 
through  the  middle  of  a  brick  row  of  shops  a  few  steps  trans- 
ported me  from  the  busy  heart  of  modern  boston  into  a  small 
and  secluded  courtyard  one  side  of  this  space  was  occupied  by 
the  square  front  of  the  province  house  three  stories  high  and 
surmounted  by  a  cupola  on  the  top  of  which  a  gilded  indian 
was  discernible  with  his  bow  bent  and  his  arrow  on  the  string 
as  if  aiming  at  the  weathercock  on  the  spire  of  the  old  south 
the  figure  has  kept  this  attitude  for  seventy  years  or  more 
ever  since  good  deacon  drowne  a  cunning  carver  of  wood  first 
stationed  him  on  his  long  sentinel's  watch  over  the  city. 

SIMPLE,  COMPLEX,  AND  COMPOUND  SENTENCES 

Examine  carefully  the  following  sentences  : 

1.  He  met  a  number  of  people. 

2.  As  he  approached  the  village,  lie  met  a  number  of  people. 

3.  He  met  a  number  of  people,  but  he  knew  none  of  them. 

4.  As  lie  approached  the  village,  he  met  a  number  of  people, 
but  he  knew  none  of  them. 

In  comparing  these  sentences,  we  observe  that  the  last 
three  differ  from  the  first  in  being  made  up  of  clauses.  In 
these  groups,  the  statement,  "-He  met  a  number  of  people," 
becomes  a  clause  ;  it  is  now  only  part  of  a  sentence.  We 
note,  too,  that  the  third  sentence  differs  from  the  second 
in  that  the  clauses  composing  it  are  both  statements  or 
groups  of  words  which,  standing  alone,  would  be  called 
sentences.  The  fourth  sentence,  like  the  second,  contains 
one  clause  which  expresses  an  idea  subordinate  to  the  main 
thought ;  and,  like  the  third,  it  contains  two  independent 
clauses  or  statements. 

The  first  sentence,  "  He  met  a  number  of  people,"  is 
called   a   simple    sentence,   because,    as    the    word   simple 


90  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

suggests,  it  does  not  consist  of  clauses.  The  second  sen- 
tence, "As  he  approached  the  vilhige,  lie  met  a  number  of 
people,"  is  called  coHipIex^  because,  as  the  name  again 
indicates,  the  clauses  are  of  different  kinds  in  respect  to 
rank.  Tlie  third  sentence,  "  He  met  a  number  of  people, 
but  he  knew  none  of  them,"  is  called  compound  because 
the  clauses  in  it  are  equal  in  rank.  The  fourth  sentence, 
"As  he  approached  the  village,  he  met  a  number  of  people, 
but  he  knew  none  of  them,"  is  called  compound-complex^ 
because,  like  the  compound  sentence,  it  contains  two  state- 
ments, and,  like  the  complex,  it  contains  a  subordinate 
clause. 

The  pu})il  who  has  dilliculty  in  recognizing  these  differ- 
ent forms  of  sentences  may  be  aided  by  asking  himself 
the  following  questions  in  regard  to  doubtful  sentences : 
Is  the  sentence  composed  of  clauses?  If  so,  are  all  the 
clauses  of  equal  rank  ?  Does  more  than  one  of  the  clauses 
make  a  statement  ?  Again,  a  proper  understanding  of  the 
uses  of  coordinating  and  of  subordinating  connectives 
will  help  one  to  distinguisli  between  the  complex  and 
the  compound  sentence.  \  \)W\)\\  \\\\o  knows  coiniectives 
thoroughly  will  see  at  once  that  such  words  as  ivlio^ 
ivliile^  where^  etc.,  when  used  to  introduce  clauses,  indicate 
complex  sentences,  and  that  such  words  as  huU  nevertheless^ 
and  consequentlij,  when  used  between  statements,  indicate 
compound  sentences. 

EXERCISE 

In  the  following  sentences,  selected  from  tli.e  Irving  sleet  dies, 
'■'•Rip  Van  Winkle'"'  and  the  '"'•Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow,'''' 
which  of  the  sentences  contain  no  clauses,  or  which  of  them 
have  hut  one  subject  and  one  predicate '?  (Remember  that 
a  compound  subject  or  a  compound  predicate  is  one  sub- 


THE   SENTENCE  91 

ject  or  one  predicate.)  In  which  of  the  sentences  are  the 
clauses  of  different  rank?  In  ivhich  do  you  fnd  more  than 
one  statement?  In  which  do  you  find  more  than  one  state- 
ment together  tvith  suhordinate  clauses?  What  connective  is 
used  to  introduce  or  comiect  the  clauses  in  each  sentence? 
To  ivliat  class  of  sentences  does  each  one  belong  ? 

1.  On  entering  the  amphitlieater,  new  objects  of  wonder 
presented  themselves  to  Hip's  gaze. 

2.  On  a  level  spot  in  the  center  was  a  company  of  dwarfs 
playing  at  ninepins. 

3.  He  even  ventured,  when  no  eye  was  fixed  npon  him,  to 
taste  the  beverage,  which  he  found  had  miich  of  the  excellent 
flavor  of  Hollands. 

4.  If  left  to  himself,  he  would  have  whistled  life  away  in 
perfect  contentment;  but  his  wife  kept  dinning  into  his  ears 
about  his  idleness,  his  carelessness,  and  the  ruin  [which]  he 
was  bringing  upon  his  family. 

5.  His  son  Rip,  an  urchin  begotten  in  his  own  likeness, 
promised  to  inherit  the  habits  along  with  the  old  clothes  of  his 
father. 

6.  When  school  hours  were  over,  he  was  even  the 
companion  and  playmate  of  the  larger  boys;  and  on  holiday 
afternoons  he  would  convey  some  of  the  smaller  ones  home, 
who  happened  to  have  pretty  sisters  or  good  housewives  for 
mothers. 

7.  He  assisted  the  farmers  occasionally  in  the  lighter  labors 
of  their  farms,  helped  to  make  hay,  mended  the  fences,  took 
the  horses  to  water,  drove  the  cows  from  pasture,  and  cut  wood 
for  the  winter  fire. 

8.  I  would  not  have  it  imagined,  however,  that  he  was  one 
of  those  cruel  potentates  of  the  school  who  joy  in  the  smart  of 
their  subjects;  on  the  contrary,  he  administered  justice  with 
discrimination  rather  than  severity,  taking  the  burden  off  the 
backs  of  the  weak  and  laying  it  on  those  of  the  strong. 


92  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

9.    Ilis  a])petite  foi-the  marvelous  and  his  powers  of  digest- 
ing it  were  equally  extraordinary. 

10.  It  was  often  his  delight,  after  his  school  was  dismissed 
in  the  afternoon,  to  stretch  himself  on  the  rich  bed  of  clover 
bordering  the  little  brook  that  whimpered  by  this  school- 
house,  and  there  con  over  old  Mather's  direful  tales,  until 
the  gathering  dusk  of  the  evening  made  the  printed  page  a 
mere  mist  before  his  eyes. 

11.  He  saw  at  a  distance  the  lordly  Hudson,  far,  far  below 
him,  moving  on  its  silent  but  majestic  course,  with  the  reflec- 
tion of  a  purple  cloud  or  the  sail  of  a  lagging  bark  sleeping 
here  and  there  on  its  glassy  bosom,  and  at  last  losing  itself  in 
the  blue  highlands. 


STUDY   OF  CONNECTIVES 

As  has  alread}^  been  suggested  in  the  discussion  of 
phrases,  clauses,  and  sentences,  a  clear  knowledge  of  the 
relation  shown  by  connectives  is  necessary  to  a  proper 
understanding  of  these  forms.  Such  knowledge  is  useful 
not  only  in  recognizing  the  different  forms  of  expression, 
but  in  the  writing  of  effective  sentences.  For  instance, 
and,  which  denotes  mere  addition,  often  usurps  the  right- 
ful place  of  the  contrasting  hut  or  the  concluding  therefore; 
and  ivliile,  a  time  connective,  is  incorrectly  made  to  serve 
in  the  place  of  the  concessive  aUhouf/h.'^ 

In  connection  then  with  the  study  of  the  sentence,  it 
would  be  well  for  the  student  to  memorize  the  different 
classes  of  connectives,  to  study  the  relations  whicli  they 
express,  and  to  know  the  forms  of  expression  which  they 
indicate. 

1  The  word  while,  sometimes  iisod  in  a  concessive  sense,  is  not  so 
used  by  the  majority  of  reputable  writers. 


THE   SENTENCE  93 

Coordinating  Connectives. ^ — The  coordinating  connect- 
ives are  used  to  connect  elements  of  equal  rank.  They 
are  divided  into  the  following  classes: 

Copulative  conjunctiotis,  or  those  which  denote  addi- 
tion:   and,  also,  moreover,  likewise,  besides. 

Contrasting  conjunctions:  but,  yet,  nevertheless,  how- 
ever, notwithstanding,  still. 

Concluding  conjunctions:  hence,  therefore,  consequently, 
so. 

Alternative  correlative  co7ijunctions  :  either  —  or, 
whether  —  or,  neither  —  nor. 

Other  correlatives:   both — and,    not   only — but   also. 

Subordinating  Connectives. ^  —  The  subordinating  con- 
nectives are  used  to  connect  elements  of  unequal  rank. 
They  are  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

Relative  jjronouns :  who,  which,  what,  tliat. 

Interrogative  2>'^onouns  (when  used  in  indirect  state- 
ments or  questions) :   who,  which,  what. 

Adverbial  connectives :  Time,  —  when,  whenever  ;  Place, 
—  whence,  whither. 

Marnier, — how,  as. 

Cause, — because,  as,  since,  for.^ 

1  Coordinating  connectives  are  sometimes  called  puj-e  connectives  be- 
cause they  do  not  belong  to  either  of  the  elements  w^hich  they  unite,  but 
merely  join  them.  Pupils  often  think  that  a  statement  following  therefore 
is  a  dependent  clause,  because  they  incorrectly  consider  therefore  a  part 
of  the  statement. 

2  Subordinating  connectives  are  not  pure  connectives,  because  in  ad- 
dition to  their  connective  use  they  fulfill  the  function  of  other  parts  of 
speech  and  belong  to  the  elements  which  they  introduce. 

3  The  connective  for  is  sometimes  coordinating  and  sometimes  subordi- 
nating. It  is  coordinating  when  the  clause  following  it  is  in  the  nature  of 
an  explanation  ;  as, 

"  His  notable  little  wife,  too,  had  enough  to  do  to  attend  to  her  house- 
keeping aud  manage  her  poultry  ;  for,  as  she  sagely  observed,  ducks  and 


94  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Concession^ — though,  although. 

Condition,  —  if,  unless. 

Piuyose,  —  that,  lest. 

Comparison,  —  as  (never  like). 

Result, — that  (used  after  the  intensive  adverb  so;  as, 
The  beggar's  appearance  was  so  pitiful  that  I  gave  him  aid). 

Subordinating  conjunction,  —  that  (used  to  introduce  a 
noun  clause;   as.  That  you  are  mistaken  is  evident). 

Connectives  may  more  easily  be  memorized  and  recalled 
by  associating  the  unfamiliar  ones  in  each  class,  or  those 
which  young  students  neglect  in  their  writing,  with  those 
which  they  repeatedly  use.  For  instance,  by  associating 
nevertlieless,  however,  and  yet  with  hut,  the  pupil  may  form 
the  habit  of  varying  the  connectives  which  express  con- 
trast. In  this  way,  too,  a  few  offending  and's  may  occa- 
sionally give  way  to  other  copulative  conjunctions. 

EXERCISES 

I.     Write  answers  to  the  following  questions: 

Question:  A  sentence  composed  of  two  clauses  connected  by 
when,  as,  if,  althoiujh,  or  because  belongs  to  wliat  class? 
Answer: 

Question :  A  sentence  composed  of  two  clauses  connected  by 
and,  hut,  or  consequenthj  is  what  kind  of  sentence '/ 
Answer : 

Question :    A   sentence   consisting   of   three   clauses,  one  of 

geese  are  foolish  things  and  must  be  looked  after,  but  girls  can  take  care 
of  themselves." 

It  is  subordinating  when  it  introduces  a  causal  clause  which  is  not 
added  as  mere  explanation  ;  as, 

I  did  not  oppose  him,  for  I  knew  it  would  be  useless. 


THE   SENTENCE  95 

which  is  introduced   by  as,  and   the  other  two  connected  by 
therefore,  belongs  to  what  class  ? 
Answer : 

Note  to  Teacher.  —  The  teacher  may  make  this  exercise  valuable  by 
asking  the  questions  rapidly  and  by  varying  the  connectives  suggested. 
For  example,  let  the  first  connective  given  be  coordinate,  the  second  sub- 
ordinate, the  third  coordinate,  the  fourth,  fifth,  and  sixth  subordinate. 

II.  Supply  as  many  different  coordinating  connectives 
between  the  clauses  in  the  following  groups  as  you  think  could 
be  properly  used,  and  give  reasons  for  connectives  supplied. 

Which  of  the  connectives  supplied  in  each  sentence  soimds 
best?  In  ivhieh  of  the  sentences  could  subordinating  con- 
iiectives  be  used? 

1.  He  was  brave — he  was  good. 

2.  He  was  homely — he  was  attractive. 

3.  He  neglected  his  work  all  year — at  the  end  of  the  year 
he  failed  to  make  his  grade. 

4.  He  had  been  in  poor  health  over  a  year — no  one,  not  even 
his  most  intimate  friend,  knew  that  he  was  ill. 

5.  He  was  an  efficient  soldier — he  was  made  commander. 

6.  Poor  Rip  was  at  last  reduced  to  despair — his  only  alterna- 
tive to  escape  from  the  labor  of  the  farm  and  the  clamor  of  his 
wife  was  to  take  his  gun  in  hands  and  stroll  away  into  the 
woods. 

7.  Rip  was  a  simple,  good-natured  man — he  was  an  obedient, 
hen-pecked  husband. 

8.  As  we  read  from  canto  to  canto,  we  are  shocked  at  Mar- 
mion's  guilt  and  crime — we  do  not  wish  him  to  be  punished  in 
the  end. 

9.  Magua's  cruelty  through  the  whole  story  is  revolting  — 
we  feel  that  his  horrible  death  is  just. 

III.  Criticise  the  use  of  connectives  in  the  following 
sentences.      Which  of  them  do  tiot  express  the  true  relatio7i 


96  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

which  exists  between  the  ehiuses?  Whieh  of  the  coordinat- 
ing ones  do  not  connect  elements  of  e(ju(d  rank?  In  which 
sentences  do  you  find  prepositions  incorrectly  used  as  sub- 
ordinating connectives  ? 

1.  The  war  was  lung  and  tedious  and  only  a  few  lives  were 
lost. 

2.  While  this  may  be  true,  I  shall  investigate  the  matter 
further. 

3.  I  asked  him  if  he  intended  to  go. 

4.  When  I  first  entered  the  hall,  I  noticed  the  confusion 
and  how  each  one  conducted  himself. 

5.  I  told  mother  to  continue  her  visit  and  that  we  were 
getting  along  well  without  her. 

6.  I  did  not  like  the  idea  of  their  going  away  a  single  bit, 
although  they  expected  to  return  early ;  but  I  thought  of  all 
that  might  happen  while  they  were  gone. 

7.  The  hardest  thing  I  ever  had  to  do  and  which  has  left 
the  most  vivid  impression  was  to  climb  Pike's  Peak. 

8.  It  startled  me ;  yet  I  did  not  get  up  to  investigate  and 
sat  there  trembling. 

9.  She  lay  there  thinking  it  would  soon  be  daylight,  and 
she  was  surprised  when  she  heard  the  clock  strike  twelve. 

10.  It  seems  like  he  buried  his  reason  and  religion  in  the 
grave  of  his  children. 

11.  Hafed  noticed  people  playing  games  and  that  the  same 
person  won  every  time. 

12.  We  have  run  jSIagua  down  like  a  hound  runs  a  deer. 

13.  He  was  not  only  mourned  by  me  but  by  the  whole 
nation. 

14.  I  do  not  know  if  I  can  come  or  not. 

1.5.  Hafed  was  already  disheartened;  but  to  add  to  his  sor- 
row his  wife,  whom  he  greatly  loved,  died  in  a  few  days 
after. 

IG.    I  am  neither  studying  Greek  nor  Latin. 


THE   SENTENCE  97 

IV.  1.  Write  four  compound  sentences.  Let  the  second 
statement  in  these  sentences  express,  respectively,  the  ideas  of 
addition,  contrast,  result,  and  reason  given  as  explanation. 

2.  Write  five  complex  sentences  expressing,  respectively, 
through  the  subordinate  clauses,  the  ideas  of  cause,  condition, 
co:icession,  jmrpose,  and  result.  (Pupil  may  refer  to  list  of 
connectives.) 

V.  Combine  the  following  statements  with  clauses  which 
loill  make  the  sentences  compound.  Combine  them  with  clauses 
which  will  make  the  sentences  co77iplex.  Note  carefully  the 
relations  expressed  by  the  different  connectives  supplied.  In 
which  of  the  sentences  are  the  ideas  e.vp>ressed  in  clauses 
equally  emphasized  ? 

1.  The  general  might  have  been  victorious. 

2.  His  efforts  were  not  duly  appreciated. 

3.  They  attracted  our  attention  by  a  series  of  violent  ges- 
tures. 

4.  Caesar  pursued  the  enemy  for  three  days  and  nights. 

5.  Brown  was  considered  the  best  man  on  the  team. 

6.  We  should  be  pleased  to  accept  the  invitation. 

7.  Washington  found  a  deplorable  condition  of  affairs  in 
camp. 

8.  I  shall  refuse  to  accept  the  conditions. 

9.  The  man  is  a  good  citizen. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  THE  COMPLEX  AND  COMPOUND 
SENTENCES 

In  the  preceding  discussion  of  different  classes  of  sen- 
tences, and  in  the  exercise  based  upon  the  discussion,  we 
have  viewed  the  simple,  complex,  and  compound  sentences 
from  the  standpoint  of  grammatical  structure.  We  now 
recognize  these  different   forms  and  know  bow  to  write 


98  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

them.  It  remains  for  us  to  study  them  in  their  rhetorical 
asjiect  —  to  know  why  they  exist  and  when  to  use  them. 
A  careful  study  of  the  following  sentences  will  make  clear 
the  real  advantages  of  the  different  forms : 

Siinjde  —  Marmion  departed  from  Xorham  Castle.  The 
Abbess  of  St.  Hilda,  with  her  live  nuns,  was  on 
her  way  to  Lindisfarne.  She  was  to  act  as  one  of 
the  judges  at  the  trial  of  Constance  de  Beverley. 
Complex — ■  At  the  same  time  that  Marmion  departed  from 
Norham  Castle,  the  Abbess  of  St.  Hilda,  with 
her  five  nuns,  was  on  her  way  to  Lindisfarne, 
where  she  was  to  act  as  one  of  the  judges  at  the 
trial  of  Constance  de  Beverley. 

Simple  —  ]\rarmion  was  victorious  in  the  combat.  INIar- 
raiou's  victory  was  in  vain.  Lady  Clare  fled  to 
the  convent  at  AVhitby  in  order  to  shun  the  hated 
match. 
Compound  —  Marmion  was  victorious  in  the  combat ;  but  his 
victory  was  in  vain,  for  Lady  Clare  fled  to 
Whitby  in  order  to  shun  the  hated  match. 

In  comparing  these  forms,  we  note,  perliaps  first  of  all, 
the  "choppy"  or  primer  effect  produced  by  using  the  three 
simple  sentences  instead  of  the  complex  or  the  compound. 
We  observe,  furthermore,  that  in  both  series  of  simple 
sentences  it  has  been  left  to  us  to  supply  the  relation  be- 
tween the  ideas  expressed  in  them,  while  in  the  complex 
and  in  Uk;  c<)ni})()un(l  the  relation  is  clearly  indicated. 
Again,  a  closer  examination  of  both  series  of  simple  sen- 
tences will  reveal  the  fact  that  onl}^  one  important  or  tell- 
ing point  has  been  made  in  each  seiies  ;  in  tlie  first  series, 
for  instance,  the  important  point  made  is,  that  the  Abbess 
is  going  to  Lindisfarne  to  judge  Constance  de  Beverley ; 
in  the  second  series,  that  Marmion's  victory  was  rendered 


THE   SENTENCE  99 

vain  by  the  flight  of  Lady  Clare.  Now,  since  every  sen- 
tence in  a  composition  should  count  for  something,  since 
every  sentence  should  make  one  important  point,  we  can 
readily  see  why  it  is  better  to  combine  the  first  series  of 
simple  sentences  into  one  complex,  and  the  second  series 
into  one  compound,  sentence. 

A  simple  sentence  may,  however,  express  a  number  of 
related  ideas  very  effectively,  as  is  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing sentence  from  Irving's  Rip  J^an  Winkle: 

"He  saw  at  a  distance  the  lordly  Hudson,  far,  far  below 
him,  moving  on  its  silent  but  majestic  course,  with  the  reflec- 
tion of  a  purple  cloud  or  the  sail  of  a  lagging  bark  here  and 
there  sleeping  on  its  glassy  bosom,  and  at  last  losing  itself  in 
the  blue  highlands." 

All  the  subordinate  ideas  expressed  in  this  sentence  can 
be  exi)ressed  clearly  in  phrases ;  furthermore,  the  neces- 
sary emphasis  can  be  given  by  expressing  them  in  phrases. 

Often,  however,  phrases  are  not  adequate  to  express  our 
ideas  clearly  or  to  give  those  ideas  necessary  emphasis. 
Contemporaneous  action,  for  instance,  as  expressed  in  the 
following  "  while "  clause,  can  hardly  be  expressed  in  a 
phrase. 

While  I  was  doing  the  work  assigned  me,  my  friend  was 
looking  up  references  in  the  library. 

Again,  the  idea  of  concession  intended  in  the  following 
sentence,  * 

Having  fought  valiantly,  the  knight  was  overcome, 

is  made  obscure  by  the  use  of  the  ambiguous  participial 
phrase,  "Having  fought  valiantly,"  instead  of  the  clause 
"Although  he  fought  valiantly,"  which  is  much  clearer  in 
meaning.      Still  again,  contrast  and  conclusion  cannot  be 


100  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

so  effectively  expressed  in  simple  sentences  as  they  can 
be  in  (compound  sentences.  For  instance,  the  contrast  in 
the  compound  sentence, 

The  page  was  brave  and  fearless;  the  monk,  cowardly  and 
cringing, 

is  much  more  emphatic  and  effective  tlian  in  the  simple 
sentence, 

The  brave,  fearless  page  was  in  contrast  to  the  cowardly, 
cringing  monk. 

And  tlie  idea  of  consequence  in  the  compound  sentence, 

His  early  years  were  spent  in  riot  and  dissipation ;  his  old 
age  was  fidl  of  grief  and  pain, 

is  much  more  emphatic  than  in  the  simple  sentence. 

On  account  of  dissipation  in  youth,  his  old  age  was  full  of 
grief  and  pain. 

One  more  example  will  further  illustrate  the  advantage 
of  sentences  constructed  of  independent  clauses: 

The  sky  was  overcast  with  dull  gray  clouds;  a  cold  damp 
wind  was  blowing,  and  the  streets  were  covered  with  mud. 

We  readily  see  that  the  unified  or  master  thought 
of  this  sentence  is  that  of  a  disagreeable  day.  AVe  see, 
too,  that  this  thought  cannot  be  so  effectively  expressed 
in  a  simple  sentence.  Or,  shou4d  each  of  these  clauses  be 
set  off  as  a  separate  sentence,  it  would  be  more  difficult 
for  us  to  see  that  the  writer's  purpose  was  to  express  the 
one  thought  of  a  disagreeable  day;  instead,  we  shouhl 
feel  that  it  was  his  intention  to  express  three  important 
thoughts  :  one  about  the  sky,  another  about  the  wind,  and 
another  about  the  streets. 


THE  SENTENCE  101 

In  addition  to  tlie  other  advantages  which  have  been 
discussed,  the  use  of  the  compound  and  complex  forms 
does  away  with  much  obtrusive  repetition  and  with 
monotonous  sentence  structure,  as  may  be  seen  from  the 
following  illustration : 

Series        f     I   entered   the    school  building  last   Monday 

of  morning.     I    Avas    surprised   at  the  size  of   the 

Simple      ]  building.     I  passed  through  the   halls.     I  was 

Sentences,    [surprised  at  the  beauty  of  the  halls. 

Complex. — When  I   entered  school   last  jNIonday  morning  I 

was  surprised  at  the  size  of  the  building  and  at  the  beauty  of 

the  halls. 

In  summing  up  the  advantages  of  complex  and  of  com- 
pound sentences,  we  find  that  they  bind  our  ideas  into  closer 
relation ;  give  larger  unity  of  thought ;  establish  proper 
proportions;  and  dispense  with  obtrusive  repetition  and 
with  monotonous  sentence  structure.  AVlienever,  then, 
we  have  a  number  of  closely  related  ideas  which  cannot  be 
fully  expressed  in  the  simple  sentence,  and  which  are  in- 
tended to  bring  out  clearly  one  important  point  in  a  com- 
position, we  should  use  the  compound  or  the  complex 
sentence. 

WHEN   TO   USE   COMPOUND   AND   COMPLEX 

SENTENCES 

Now  the  question  arises :  When  shall  we  use  the  com- 
plex, and  when  the  compound  sentence  ?  The  comparative 
importance  of  the  ideas  to  be  expressed  by  means  of  clauses 
should,  generally,  determine  whether  the  sentence  is  to  be 
complex  or  compound ;  if  the  ideas  are  equally  important, 
the  sentence  should  be  compound ;  if  one  idea  is  subor- 
dinate   to    the    other,  the   sentence   should   be    complex. 


102  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

Generally  speaking,  subordinate  ideas  should  be  expressed 
in  subordinate  forms;  principal  ideas  should  be  expressed 
in  principal  forms.  For  instance,  if  we  wish  to  show  re- 
lation between  the  two  ideas  expressed  in  the  statements, 

I  was  walking  down  Pennsylvania  Avenue, 
;iii(l 

I  witnessed  an  amusing  incident, 

we  can  see  at  once  that  the  complex  form  would  be  better, 
because  the  ideas  ;ire  not  eiiually  important.  What  I 
wish  to  tell  is  that 

I  witnessed  an  amusing  incident. 

The  other  clause  is  intended  to  express  merely  the 
time  of  the  incident.  On  the  other  hand,  if  we  wish  to 
combine  into  one  sentence  the  three  statements. 

Boys  and  girls,  laugliing  and  chattering,  were  passing  through 
the  halls, 

The  bells  were  ringing  loudly, 
and 

Everywhere  there  was  merry  confusion, 

we  can  readily  see  that  the  sentence  shoidd  be  componiul, 
because  the  ideas  expressed  in  the  three  statements  are 
equally  important;  each  clause  helps  equally  to  develop 
the  idea  of  confusion. 

EXERCISES 

T.  Comhhie  into  simple,  complex,  or  compound  sentences 
the  following  groups  of  words.  Before  you  make  the  com- 
bination, ask  yourself  the  following  questions  :  Which  of  the 
ideas  in  each  series  are  important  enough  to  he  expressed  in 
clauses?  Which  of  the  ideas  to  he  expressed  in  clauses  are 
equally  important?     Which  are  subordinate?     Which  of  the 


THE    SENTENCE 


loi; 


2, 


ideas  are  sulordinate  enough  to  he  clearly  expressed  in 
phrases?  What  one  important  thought  or  ivhat  master  idea 
is  each  series  intended  to  express? 

a.  At  last  a  Gavil  drew  near  to  one  of  the  old  men. 

h.  This  Gaul  was  bolder  than  the  rest. 

c.  The  Gaul  put  forth  his  hand. 

d.  He  gently  stroked  the  old  man's  beard. 

a.  The  Gauls  came  into  his  neighborhood. 
h.    Camillus  did  not  plan  how  to  escape  theff 
c.    He  tried  rather  to  punish  them  for  what  they  had 

done  to  Rome. 

o.  This  messenger  boldly  traveled  the  greater  part  of 
the  way  to  Rome  by  day. 

b.  He  waited  until  night  to  draAV  near  to  the  city. 
a.  At  once  Manilas  snatched  up  his  arms. 
h.  He  shouted  for  his  comrades  to  awake. 

c.  He  rushed  to  the  spot. 

d.  Here  the  first  Gauls  were  just  climbing  over  the 

walls  of  the  citadel. 

V 
o.    Of  all  wild  creatures  the  deer  is  one  of  the  most 

gracefid  in  action.  / 

h.    ife  poses  with  the  skill  of  an  experienced  mode^fn^ 
a.    Then  this  pair  of  little  flycatchers  did  what  I  had 

never  seen  birds  do  before. 
h.    They  pulled  the  nest  to  pieces  and  rebuilt  it  in  a 

peach  tree  not  many  rods  away. 
c.    In  this  peach  tree  a  brood  was  successfully  reared. 

He  found  the  eyes  of  Hester  Prynne  fastened  on 

his  own. 
He  saw  that  she  appeared  to  recognize  him. 
He  slowly  and  calmly  raised  his  finger. 
He  made  a  gesture  with  it  in  the  air  and  laid  it  on 

his  lips. 


7. 


104 


10. 


/^, 


j/i 


'7 

a. 

h. 

c. 
d. 


11. 


12. 


(I. 


0 


COMPOSTTTOX    AXD    RHETORIC 

^BTie   light  of  the   glininioring   hintern   had   faded 

quite  away^v 
The  minister  discovered  that  the  last  few  uioiiifiits 

had  been  a  crisis  of  terrible  anxiety.^  .>  f  ^  ^ 
He  knew  this  by  the  faintness  which  came  over  him. 
]Iis  mind  had  made  an  involuntary  effort  to  relieve 

itself  by  a  kind  of  lurid  playfulness. 
The  view  is  superb. 
The  ripe  autumn  landscape,  cut  through  by  the  great 

placid  river,  rolls  away  to  tlie  east. 
In  the  extreme  north  the  walls  of  the  Kaatskills 

stand  out  clear  and  strong. 
In  the  south  the  mountains  of  the  Highland  bound 

the  view. 
A  black,  wood-embraced  lake  lay  at  our  feet. 
The  long  panorama  of  the  Kaatskills  tilled  the  far 

distance. 
The  more   broken   outlines    of    the    Shawangunk 

range  filled  the  rear. 
On  every  hand    were  precipices  and  a  wild  con 

fusion  of  rocks  and  trees. 
I  was  a  little  weary  of  the  rough  tramping. 
It  was  necessary  to  be  moving. 
With  wet  cloths  and  the  night  air,  I  was  decidedly 

chilly. 
a.7The  Senators  were  selfish  and  short-sighted,  o^^ 
b.    The  rich  men  were  greedy  and  corrupt.  ^ 
f.    The  common  people  were  ready  to  support  any  one 

who  would  give  ilicm  bread  to  eat  and  amuse 


-^> 


them  with  circus  races  and  wild  beasts. 
Caesar  found  their  vessels  still  at  anchor  tl)er( 


V^ 


6.   A  battle  ^oUowedT^^y^f^' 
"^  C?8sar"^lefeated  and  captured  most  of  the  men. 
d.   lAe  also  recovered  the  money  which  he  had  ])aid 
I J    them  as  a  ransom.     (Use  not  oiili/  —  hut  also.) 


THE   SENTENCE  105 

II.  Account  for  the  compound  and  the  complex  forms  in 
the  following  sentences.  Explain  the  relative  inportance  of 
the  clauses  in  each  sentence.  Hoiv  would  the  relative  im- 
portance of  the  ideas  be  affected  by  changing  the  compound 
sentences  to  complex  ?  By  changing  the  complex  to  compound  ? 
What  is  the  master  idea  or  important  point  in  each  sentence? 
Imitate  in  original  sentences  the  forms  studied  in  this 
exercise. 

1.  The  reflector  lighted  up  the  target  beautifully,  and  I 
believe  there  was  a  better  chance  of  hitting  it  than  by  day- 
light ;  for  the  only  thing  you  could  see  was  the  target.  —  Stockton. 

2.  With  a  quiet  disregard  of  other  people's  ideas  about 
bow-shooting  and  of  other  people's  opinions  about  himself,  he 
persevered  in  a  style  of  shooting  which  appeared  absolutely 
absurd  to  any  one  who  knew  anything  of  the  rules  and  methods 
of  archery.  —  Stockton. 

3.  He  played  the  serenade  from  Trovatore  ;  and  the  familiar 
notes  brought  back  visions  of  old  days  and  old  delights,  when 
the  successful  writer  wore  good  clothes  and  sat  at  operas,  where 
he  looked  into  sweet  eyes  and  talked  of  Italian  airs,  —  when 
his  future  appeared  all  a  succession  of  bright  scenery  and  joy- 
ous acts,  without  any  provision  for  a  drop  curtain.  — Stockton. 

4.  The  sharp  touches  of  the  chisel  are  gone  from  the  rich 
tracery  of  the  arches ;  the  roses  which  adorned  the  keystones 
have  lost  their  leafy  beauty ;  everything  bears  marks  of  the 
gradualdilapidationsof  time,  which  yet  has  something  pleasing 
in  its  very  decay.  —  Irving. 

5.  They  linger  about  these  as  about  the  tombs  of  friends 
and  companions ;  for  indeed  there  is  something  of  companion- 
ship between  the  author  and  the  reader,  —  Irving. 

6.  Other  men  are  known  to  posterity  only  through  the 
medium  of  history,  which  is  continually  growing  faint  and 
obscure ;  but  intercourse  between  the  author  and  his  reader  is 
ever  new,  active,  and  immediate.  —  Irving. 


106  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

7.  He  ]ias  lived  for  men  move  than  for  liiinself ;  he  has  sac- 
rificed surrounding  enjoyments  and  shut  himself  up  from  the 
delights  of  social  life,  that  he  might  the  more  intimately  com- 
mune with  distant  minds  and  distant  ages. 

8.  It  was,  as  I  have  said,  a  fine  autumnal  day  ;  the  sky  was 
clear  and  serene,  and  nature  wore  that  rich  and  golden  livery 
which  we  always  associate  with  the  idea  of  abundance. 

9.  That  he  might  make  his  appearance  hefore  his  mistress 
in  the  true  style  of  a  cavalier,  he  borrowed  a  horse  from  the 
farmer  with  whom  he  was  domiciliated,  a  choleric  old  Dutch- 
man of  the  name  of  Hans  Van  Tli})per.  —  Irving. 

10.  Then  she  told  how  ]\[armion  had  deserted  her,  how  he 
had  betrayed  De  Wilton,  and  how  he  had  basely  forced  his 
attention  upon  Lady  Clare. 

11.  AVe  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men 
are  created  equal;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

12.  Few  men  exhibit  greater  diversity,  or,  if  we  may  so  ex- 
press it,  greater  antithesis  of  character  than  the  native  warrior 
of  North  America.  —  CoorEu. 

13.  In  war  he  is  daring,  boastful,  cunning,  ruthless,  self- 
denying,  and  self-devoted;  in  peace  he  is  just,  generous, 
hospitable,  revengeful,  superstitious,  modest,  and  commonly 
chaste. 

14.  Smiling  bitterly  at  himself  and  her,  he  took  the  heavy 
key  of  the  Province  House,  and  delivering  it  into  the  old  lady's 
hands,  drew  his  cloak  around  him  for  departure. 

15.  The  gold  of  its  heavily  wrought  frame  was  tarnished, 
and  its  surface  so  blurred  that  the  old  woman's  figure,  when- 
ever she  paused  before  it,  looked  indistinct  and  ghostlike. 

III.  Yary  the  8tructure  of  the  following/  sentences  in  as 
many  ways  as  you  can.  Forms  may  he  varied  hy  reduciny 
or  expandiny  elements,  or  hy  rearrangmg  them;  for  instance. 


THE   SENTENCE  107 

words  maij  he  expanded  into  phrases  or  clauses;  clauses  tnay 
he  reduced  to  phrases  or  words;  clauses  following  the  main 
statement  may  he  made  introductory  or  parentlietical. 

Imitate  in  sentences  of  your  own  the  1st,  od,  -ith,  1th,  9th, 
10th,  11th. 

1.  Passing  clown  the  river,  we  came  to  a  little  town  beauti- 
fully situated  among  hills. 

2.  The  musician  presented  a  long,  uninteresting  programme. 

3.  The  Baron,  though  a  small  man,  had  a  large  soul,  and  it 
swelled  with  satisfaction  at  the  consciousness  of  being  the 
greatest  man  in  the  little  world  about  him^  — Irving. 

4.  When  the  soldier  had  delivered  the  message  which  had 
been  intrusted  to  hira,  he  returned  to  his  post,  conscious  of 
having  rendered  valuable  service  to  his  beloved  country. 

5.  He  even  suffered  their  hands  to  meet  without  betraying 
the  least  emotion. 

6.  Hey  ward  prepared  to  comply,  though  with  strong  disgust 
at  the  nature  of  the  office  he  was  compelled  to  execute. 

7.  Looking  upward,  he  found  that  the  thin  fleecy  clouds, 
which  evening  had  painted  On  the  blue  sky,  were  already 
losing  their  faintest  tints  of  rose  color. —  Cooper. 

8.  The  party  was  soon  reunited,  and  another  consultation 
was  held  between  the  scout  and  his  new  comrades,  during 
which  Alice  and  Cora  had  a  little  leisure  to  observe  their  sit- 
uation more  minutely Cooper. 

9.  Many  and  strange  were  the  fables  which  the  gossips 
whispered  about  her,  in  all  the  chimney  corners  of  the  town. 

10.  She  turned  the  key,  withdrew  it  from  the  lock,  unlocked 
the  door,  and  stepped  across  the  threshold.  — Hawthorne. 

11.  Proscribed,  excluded  from  mercy,  the  monarch's  most 
dreaded  and  hated  foe,  this  Kew  England  merchant  had  stood 
triumphantly  against  a  kingdom's  strength.  —  Hawthorne. 

12.  I  saw,  when  I  turned  to  fasten  the  gate,  that  the  men, 
previously  seated  on  the  lawn,  had  withdrawn  to  the  porch. 


108  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 

INCOllRECT   USES    OF    COMPLEX  AND   COMPOUND 
SENTENCES 

Inexperienced  writers,  who  are  not  familiar  with  tlie 
underlying  principles  of  the  structure  of  complex  and  com- 
pound sentences,  are  apt  to  use  these  forms  indiscrimi- 
nately, writing  the  compound  sentence  to  express  ideas  not 
equally  important,  and  the  complex  to  express  ideas  of  the 
same  rank.     For  instance,  the  use  of  the  compound  form. 

Football  is  my  favorite  game,  and  this  is  the  way  it  is  played, 

is  faulty,  because  the  idea,  "  Football  is  my  favorite  game," 
is  not  so  important  as  the  idea  tliat  it  is  played  in  a  certain 
way.     Again,  the  use  of  tlie  complex  sentence, 

We  can  readily  see  Addison's  skill  as  a  describer,  because  in 
a  few  strokes  he  has  portrayed  for  us  a  character  at  once 
peculiar,  pleasing,  and  congenial  to  our  taste, 

is  faulty,  because  the  idea  expressed  in  the  subordinate 
causal  clause  is  not  really  subordinate  to  the  idea  expressed 
in  the  first  clause.  The  last  clause  is  not  a  real  causal 
clause,  but  an  additional  clause,  the  purpose  of  which  is  to 
explain  more  fully  the  general  statement,  that  Addison  is 
a  skillful  describer.     Hence,  the  first  sentence. 

Football  is  my  favorite  game,  and  this  is  the  way  it  is  played, 
should  be  changed  to  the  complex. 

Football,  which  is  my  favorite  game,  is  played  as  follows : 

and  the  second  sentence, 

We  can  readily  see  Addison's  skill  as  a  describer,  because  in 
a  few  strokes  lie  has  portrayed  us  a  character  at  once  peculiar, 
pleasing,  and  congenial  to  our  taste, 

should  read. 


THE   SENTENCE  109 

We  can  readily  see  Addison'  s  skill  as  a  describer ;  in  a  few- 
strokes  he  has  portrayed  us  a  character  at  once  peculiar,  pleas- 
ing, and  congenial  to  our  taste. 

Other  instances  of  faulty  complex  and  compound  sen- 
tences are  those  in  which  the  main  ideas  are  made  obscure 
by  the  introduction  of  unrelated  ideas.  This  error  most 
often  occurs  in  loose  sentences;  that  is,  in  sentences  in 
which  the  sense  is  complete  before  the  end  of  the  sentence 
is  reached.  In  sentences  of  this  kind,  the  tendency  is  to 
lose  sight  of  the  important  point  of  the  sentence,  and  to 
ramble  away  from  that  point.  For  instance,  note  the  fol- 
lowing complex  sentence: 

The  Abbess  was  going  to  Lindisfarne  to  act  as  a  judge  at  the 
trial  of  Constance  de  Beverley,  who  was  accused  of  attempting 
the  life  of  Lady  Clare,  who  had  become  a  nun  in  order  to  escape 
marriage  with  Marmion,  whom  she  hated  because  he  had  fought 
in  combat  with  De  Wilton,  her  lover. 

Now  the  structure  here  is  faulty.  By  the  time  we  reach 
the  end  of  the  sentence,  we  have,  on  account  of  unre- 
lated ideas,  lost  sight  of  the  writer's  original  intention, 
namely,  to  tell  us  that  the  Abbess  was  going  to  Lindis- 
farne to  try  Constance  de  Beverley  for  the  attempted  mur- 
der of  Lady  Clare. 

In  the  compound  sentence,  which  by  its  very  nature  is 
loose,  this  tendency  to  get  away  from  the  real  point  of 
the  sentence  is  even  greater.  The  convenient,  but  much 
abused,  and,  hut,  and  so  often  serve  to  bind  into  sentences 
a  large  number  of  clauses,  some  of  which  are  not  related 
to  the  one  thought,  the  master  thought,  which  the  sentence 
is  intended  to  express.  Many  compositions  written  by 
first-year  high  school  pupils  contain  such  compound  sen- 
tences as  the  following  : 


110  COMPOSITION    AND    lUIETORIC 

He  intended  to  make  his  way  through  to  Richmond  ;  so  he 
made  arrangements  with  the  engineer  to  give  him  some  employ- 
ment, but  the  engineer  did  not  keep  his  promise ;  so  the  boy 
Avas  compelled  to  walk,  and  l)y  doing  this  he  was  delayed 
several  days  on  his  trip ;  therefore  he  lost  a  good  position 
which  had  been  offered  him,  and  he  had  to  return  home. 

A  study  of  tills  sentence  shows  two  reasons  wliy  its 
structure  is  faulty.  First,  the  sentence  makes  two  im- 
portant points:  one,  that  a  boy  wdio  intended  to  ride  to 
Ilichmond,  by  working  his  way  through,  was  compelled 
to  walk  because  the  engineer  failed  to  keep  his  promise ; 
the  other,  that,  on  account  of  the  delay  occasioned  by 
having  to  walk,  the  boy  lost  a  good  position  and  was  com- 
pelled to  return  home.  Second,  some  of  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed in  independent  clauses  are  subordinate  enough  for 
dependent  clauses  or  phrases.  It  would  be  better,  then, 
to  construct  from  tlie  elements  used  in  the  one  compound 
sentence,  two  sentences,  —  a  complex-compound  and  a  com- 
plex sentence.     The  first  sentence  might  read, 

He  intended  to  work  his  way  through  to  Kichmond;  hut 
as  the  engineer  Avitli  whom  he  had  arranged  for  employment 
did  not  keep  his  promise,  he  was  compelled  to  walk. 

The  second. 

Being  thus  delayed  on  his  trip,  he  lost  a  good  position  which 
had  been  offered  him,  and  he  was  forced  to  return  home. 

Another  ineffective  complex  sentence  is  one  in  Avhich, 
through  the  omission  of  a  proper  coiniective,  a  suljordinate 
clause  is  made  to  appear  as  a  statement.  For  example,  in 
the  sentence, 

Bridget  said  that  she  needed  sugar,  and  she  could  not  wash 
the  clothes  without  soap, 


THE   SENTENCE  *  111 

the  last  clause,  because  of  the  omission  of  the  subordinating 
connective  tliat,  seems  to  be  an  independent  clause  which 
bears  no  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  By  supply- 
ing the  connective  that  before  the  last  clause,  as 

Bridget  said  that  she  needed  sugar,  and  that  the  clothes 
could  not  be  washed  without  soap, 

we  can  see  that  the  second  clause  is  a  subordinate  clause 
used,  like  the  first  subordinate  clause,  as  the  object  of  the 
verb  said;  and,  furthermore,  that  it  expresses  an  idea 
similar  to  that  expressed  in  the  first  subordinate  clause ; 
namely,  that  Bridget  needed  soap  (as  well  as  sugar). 

Still  another  faulty  complex  sentence  is  one  in  which  a 
dependent  clause  is  incorrectly  united  by  a  coordinating 
connective  with  another  element  of  unequal  rank.  For 
instance,  and  and  hut  are  frequently  used  before  a  tvho^ 
whieh,  or  that  clause  when  there  is  no  preceding  ivho, 
which^  or  that  clause  to  justify  the  use  of  the  coordinating 
connective ;  as, 

A  boy  of  conscientious  principles,  and  tvho  wishes  to  do  the 
right  thing,  will  never  resort  to  underhand  methods, 

for 

A  boy  ivho  is  conscientious  and  ivJio  wishes  to  do  the  right 
thing  will  never  resort  to  underhand  methods. 

In  writing  complex  and  compound  sentences  the  writer 
should  keep  in  mind  three  important  principles :  first, 
every  sentence  is  intended  to  express  one  and  only 
one  important  thought,  and  nothing  must  be  introduced 
into  the  sentence  that  will  render  that  one  thought  ob- 
scure ;  second,  that  the  relative  importance  of  the  ideas 
of  the  sentence  must  be  shown  by  expressing  subordinate 
ideas  in  subordinate  forms,  and  principal  ideas  in   prin- 


112  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

cipal  forms;  tliird,  that  connectives  must  be  used  gram- 
matically and  coherently. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Criticise  the  complex  and  the  compound  sentences  in  the 
following  exercise.  Which  of  the  compound  sentences  shoidd 
be  made  complex,  or  partly  so?  Which  of  them  should  he 
made  simple?  Which  of  the  co)nplez  sentences  should  be 
made  compound?  In  which  is  it  difficult  to  determine  the 
one  point  which  the  sentence  is  intended  to  make?  In  tvhich 
do  you  find  two  distinct  points? 

1.  One  day  some  men  were  working  with  the  telephone 
wires  in  our  house,  and  one  young  man  in  an  unguarded 
moment  touched  a  live  wire;  this  resulted  in  liis  death. 

2.  I  started  into  high  school  last  Monday  and  I  had  no 
idea  of  what  it  was  like. 

3.  Some  were  straggling  along  and  looking  very  much 
bewildered  and  lost,  and  they  were  apj^arently  amazed  at  the 
large  number  of  students  in  the  halls. 

4.  It  is  the  beginning  of  a  new  term  and  I  am  anxious  to 
turn  over  a  new  leaf. 

5.  The  maid  immediately  gave  them  some  medicine,  and 
she  thought  it  Avould  relieve  them ;  but  after  an  hour  or  so, 
they  grew  worse. 

6.  At  the  appointed  time  my  first  recitation  began,  and  the 
idea  of  calling  it  English  was  quite  novel  to  me. 

7.  I  received  an  invitation  to  the  rece})tion ;  but  the 
weather  was  cold  and  disagreeable,  so  I  did  not  go ;  but  I  sent 
my  regrets. 

8.  One  day  last  summer,  when  I  was  visiting  my  grand- 
mother, who  lives  in  the  country,  I  had  an  exciting  experience 
with  a  yomig  colt,  which  my  graiulfathor  had  bought  of  one 
of  his  neighbors,  who  told  my  grandfather  when  he  bought  the 
colt  that  it  was  a  little  fractious  sometimes. 


THE   SENTENCE  113 

9.    Honey  is  too  rank  and  pnngent  to  the  modern  taste, 
because  it  soon  cloys  ni)on  the  pahite. 

10.  He  is  a  wonderful  musician,  because  he  even  surpasses 
Mozart. 

11.  The  one  was  the  shameless  tool  of  bosses,  while  the 
other  was  the  fearless  representative  of  the  people. 

12.  I  like  the  study  of  Latin  better  than  the  study  of  Eng- 
lish, because  in  English  we  have  to  write  compositions,  a 
thing  which  I  have  hated  to  do  ever  since  I  attended  a  private 
school,  to  which  my  parents  sent  me  because  I  was  not  strong 
enough  to  attend  the  public  schools. 

13.  When  1  entered  high  school,  I  supposed  that  the  pupils 
would  be  unsociable  and  the  teachers  would  not  direct  me  to 
my  classes. 

11.  He  declared  that  he  would  not  support  the  measure  and 
there  was  no  precedent  for  such  a  measure. 

15.  Rip  observed  that  they  were  playing  at  ninepins,  and,  in 
the  intervals  of  the  game,  they  partook  freely  of  the  liquor. 

16.  Rhetoric,  a  subject  most  distasteful  to  me,  and  which  I 
have  despised,  constitutes  a  large  part  of  the  first-year  English 
course. 

17.  A  boy  preparing  for  active  business  life,  and  who  wishes 
to  succeed,  must  learn  to  be  prompt  and  accurate. 

18.  He  noticed  some  gambling  and  that  others  were  singing 
and  dancing. 

19.  I  imagined  him  very  stern  and  one  who  would  give  hard 
lessons. 

20.  I  soon  became  accustomed  to  the  different  bells  and  the 
confusion  in  the  halls,  and  my  fright  lessened  and  I  felt  more 
at  ease. 

II.  Expand  the  following  statements  into  compound  sen- 
tences by  adding  other  statements  exjyressing  related  ideas. 
Use  the  semicolon  hetiveen  statements  7iot  connected  hy  and. 

1.    It  was  a  fine  autumnal  day. 
I 


114  COMPOSITION    A\D    RHETORIC 

(Add  three  particular  statements  wliicli  will  prove  the  general 
statement.) 

2.  The  room  was  disagreeable. 
(Expand  in  the  same  way.) 

3.  Three  traits  stand  out  prominently  in  the  character  of  the 
American  Indian. 

(Add  one  statement  of  explanation.) 

4.  James  was  an  ideal  member  of  the  school. 
(Add  one  explanatory  statement.) 

5.  lloosevelt  is  not  a  mere  politician. 

(Add  one  balancing  or  contrasting  statement.) 

6.  He  is  a  thorough  coward. 

(Add  particular  statement  to  prove  the  general  statement.) 

7.  The  Japanese  are  a  wonderful  people. 

(Add  a  general  statement  of  the  same  nature,  but  more  em 
phatic.) 

8.  I  do  not  ask  for  mercy. 

(Add  one  similar  statement  for  emphasis,  and  one  balancing 
or  contrasting  statement  at  the  end.) 

III.  Expand  the  following  statements  into  complex  sen- 
tences^ hy  introducing  as  many  phrases  and  dependent  clauses 
as  may  he  used  tvithout  obscuring  the  main  point  made  in  the 
original  statement. 

1.  The  general  at  last  won  the  victory. 

2.  I  determined  to  go  abroad  for  the  purpose  of  studying  art. 

3.  The  gold  inedal  was  awarded  to  a  young  girl. 

4.  The  mayor  failed  to  keep  hi.s  pledges  to  the  people. 

5.  A  beautiful  stream  added  much  to  this  charming  spot. 

6.  Napoleon  died  a  prisoner  on  the  island  of  St.  Helena. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  ELEMENTS  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

In  tlie  preceding  discussion  of  the  sentence  we  have 
learned  that  it  is  necessary  to  keep  in  mind  the  relative 


THE  sentp:nce  115 

importance  of  the  ideas  in  a  sentence.  We  have  learned 
that  subordinate  ideas  must  generally  be  expressed  in  sub- 
ordinate forms ;  that  principal  ideas  must  be  expressed  in 
independent  clauses  or  statements.  The  practice  of  this 
rule,  however,  is  not  always  sufficient  to  insure  effective 
sentences.  We  may  use  phrases  and  dependent  clauses 
to  express  subordinate  ideas,  and  independent  clauses  to 
express  our  most  important  ideas,  and  still  fail  to  make 
our  thought  clear.  This  we  can  accomplish  by  remember- 
ing that  the  important  idea  should  occupy  an  important 
place  in  the  sentence.  So  the  idea  which  we  wish  to 
emphasize  most  should  usually  come  last  in  the  sentence ; 
the  idea  next  in  importance  should  come  first ;  and  the 
ideas  which  are  not  intended  to  be  emphasized  should  be 
used  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence.  For  example,  the 
following  sentence  is  ineffective,  because  the  writer  has 
incorrectly  given  emphasis  to  the  subordinate  idea  by 
reserving  it  for  the  last  part  of  the  sentence : 

I  departed  for  home  with  a  vague  idea  of  what  was  expected 
in  the  following  recitation,  after  choosing  a  guide  to  direct  me 
through  the  halls  the  following  morning. 

The  sentence  should  read: 

After  choosing  a  guide  to  direct  me  through  the  halls  the 
following  morning,  I  departed  for  home  with  a  vague  idea  of 
what  was  expected  in  the  following  recitation. 

Another  example  will  still  further  illustrate  the  impor- 
tance of  arrangement: 

Many  sinful  plans  may  enter  his  mind  and  he  may  injure 
his  persecutors,  forgetful  of  consequences. 

In  thi^  sentence,  the  most  important  idea,  that  "he  may 
injure  his  persecutors,"  is  deprived  of  its  proper  emphasis 


116  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

by  the  writer's  placing  the  very  subordinate  idea,  "forget- 
ful of  consequences,"  at  the  end  of  the  sentence.  The 
sentence  sliould  read: 

^[any  sinful  plans  may  enter  his  mind,  and,  forgetful  of  con- 
sequences, lie  may  injure  his  persecutors. 

Further,  a  wise  arrangement  of  elements  in  the  sentence 
not  only  gives  to  the  sentence  its  correct  emphasis,  but  it 
makes  unmistakably  clear  the  relation  of  the  parts  of  the 
sentence.  Some  of  the  most  absurd  errors  in  sentence 
structure  arise  from  an  unskillful  arrangement  of  elements. 
For  example,  the  sentences: 

I  saw  the  bust  of  Sir  Walter  Scott  entering  Westminster 
Abbey. 

The  marron  grows  in  France,  which  is  a  cliestnut, 

are  absurdly  incoherent.  In  the  first  sentence,  the  phrase, 
"entering  Westminster  Abbey,"  seems  to  modify  the  word 
"bust,"  whereas  it  really  modifies  the  subject  "I";  in  the 
second,  the  clause,  "which  is  a  chestnut,"  seems  to  modify 
the  word  "  France,"  whereas  it  really  modifies  the  subject 
"marron."  Thus  we  get  from  the  first  sentence  the  ab- 
surd idea  that  Sir  Walter  Scott's  bust  was  entering  the 
Abbey,  and  from  the  second,  that  France  is  a  chestnut. 
We  say  tluit  these  sentences  are  incoherent,  because  the 
elements  in  them  are  so  arranged  that  the  relation  between 
tlie  parts  is  not  clear. 

Effective  expression  of  thour/ht,  then^  depends  not  only  upon 
a  skillful  use  of  the  different  sentence  forms,  but  also  up)on  a 
judicious  arrangement  of  the  parts. 

EXERCISE 

Criticise  the  arrangement  of  the  parts  in  the  folio winu  sen- 
tences.    In  which  sentences  is  the  meaning  obscured  by  an 


THE   SENTENCE  117 

unskillful  arrangement  of  elements?     In  which  is  the  relation 
between  the  parts  amhiguoiis  ? 

1.  I  realize  how  cowardly  and  cruel  I  have  been,  when  I 
think  of  my  broken  vows. 

2.  I  cannot  realize  that  you  are  to  suffer  death,  so  young 
and  fair. 

3.  I  received  your  letter,  but  am  sorry  to  say  that  I  cannot 
come  to  your  rescue,  on  account  of  war. 

4.  At  last  I  found  my  recitation  room,  strolling  around  like 
a  lost  chicken. 

5.  One  Saturday  afternoon  I  persuaded  my  mother  to  let  me 
go  to  market,  as  she  was  not  feeling  well. 

6.  He  never  did  a  bit  of  work  about  the  house,  in  spite  of 
his  wife's  scoldings. 

7.  She  was  sentenced  to  be  entombed  alive  by  the  abbot. 

8.  I  thought  I  saw  the  chair  rock  when  I  turned  my  head. 

9.  The  statues  which  I  saw  in  the  halls  of  great  men  im- 
pressed me. 

10.  And  we  all  had  to  take  our  cloaks  to  the  proper  room,  to 
a  chorus  of  giggles. 

11.  One  is  tempted  to  say  that  he  was  given  worldly  wis- 
dom without  contact  with  the  world  by  special  dispensation. 

12.  Congregationalism  still  prevailed  in  many  parts  of  New 
England  and  elsewhere,  though  of  a  liberalized  type. 

13.  The  butterfly  flew  down  from  his  head  and  fell  upon  the 
floor,  as  the  doctor  spoke. 

14.  His  garb  was  of  an  antique  fashion,  like  that  of  his 
predecessors. 

15.  Colonel  Joliffe  raised  himself  to  the  full  height  of  his 
aged  form,  and  smiled  sternly  on  the  British  general,  as  the 
deep  boom  of  the  cannon  smote  upon  his  ear. 

LOOSE  AND  PERIODIC  SENTENCES 

In  connection  with  the  study  of  arrangement  of  parts 
of  sentences,  we  should  observe  two  kinds  of  sentences  in 


118  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

which  arrangement  is  an  important  factor ;  namely,  the 
k)Ose  and  the  periodic  sentence.  A  loose  sentence  is 
grammaticall}"  complete  at  one  or  more  points  before  the 
end  of  the  sentence  ;  as, 

To  be  sm-e  I  had  only  recently  eaten  a  hearty  luncheon  ;  but 
the  pangs  of  hunger  got  hold  on  me,  when  I  thought  that  I 
should  have  no  supper,  no  breakfast ;  and  as  the  procession  of 
unattainable  meals  stretched  before  me,  I  grew  hungrier  and 
hungrier.  — Wakner. 

A  periodic  sentence  is  not  grammatically  complete  be- 
fore tlie  end  of  the  sentence  ;  as, 

"  One  fine  autumnal  afternoon.  Rip  Van  Winkle,  in  order  to 
escape  the  scolding  tongue  of  his  wife,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
to  indulge  his  taste  for  hunting,  seeks  one  of  the  highest  peaks 
of  the  Kaatskill  jNIountains."' 

Examining  tliis  sentence  carefully,  we  see  that  the  sus- 
pended sense  is  due  to  the  position  before  the  predicate 
verb  seehs^  of  the  phrases,  "  One  fine  autumnal  afternoon," 
"  in  order  to  escape  the  scolding  tongue  of  his  wife,"  and 
"  at  the  same  time  to  indulge  his  taste  for  hunting."  "We 
say  these  phrases  are  in  periodic  position  because  they  are 
so  arranged  in  the  sentence  as  to  keep  the  meaning  incom- 
plete. If  we  place  them  after  the  predicate,  in  loose  po- 
sition, the  sentence  then  becomes  loose  ;  the  phrases  no 
longer  keep  the  meaning  incomplete;  as. 

Rip  Van  Winkle  seeks  one  of  the  highest  peaks  of  the 
Kaatskill  Mountains,  one  afternoon,  in  order  to  escape  the 
scolding  tongue  of  his  wife,  and  at  the  same  time  to  indulge 
his  taste  for  hunting. 

In  a  composite  sentence  some  of  the  phrases  and  clauses 
are  arranged  in  2)eriodic  position,  and  otiiors  in  loose  posi- 
tion.    Though  such  a  sentence  taken  as  a  whole  is  loose, 


THE   SENTENCE  119 

some  of  its  members  are  periodic.  The  following  com- 
pound sentence,  for  instance,  is  composite ;  each  member 
of  the  sentence  contains  one  clause  arranged  in  periodic 
position : 

When  he  mentioned  the  taunts  of  the  women,  they  dropped 
their  heads  in  shame ;  but  wheu  he  pointed  out  their  means  of 
revenge,  he  struck  a  chord  which  never  fails  to  thrill  in  the 
breast  of  an  Indian. 

EXERCISE 

Classify  the  folloumig  sentences  into  loose,  periodic,  and 
composite  sentences.  In  which  of  the  sentences  do  you  yrasp> 
the  thought  most  readily  as  you  read  along?  Which  of  them 
are  least  formal  ?  In  which  does  the  significant  point  of  the 
sentence  stand  out  most  clearly  and  emphatically?  Which 
of  the  loose  sentences  could  he  changed  to  periodic  or  com- 
posite sentences  with  good  effect?  Which  of  the  periodic 
could  he  changed  into  effective  loose  or  composite  sentences  ? 

1.  His  proposal  Avas  received  with  acclamation,  and  exe- 
cuted with  the  swiftness  of  thought. 

2.  He  now  spoke  eloquently  of  the  wives  and  children  of 
the  slain;  of  their  destitution;  of  their  misery,  both  physical 
and  moral;  and,  at  last,  of  their  unavenged  wrongs.  —  Cooper. 

3.  Such  memorials  of  the  passage  and  struggles  of  men  are 
yet  freqnent  throughout  the  broad  barrier  of  wilderness  which 
once  separated  the  provinces.  —  Cooper, 

4.  The  gray  light,  the  gloomy  little  area  of  dark  grass  sur- 
rounded by  its  border  of  brush,  beyond  which  the  pines  rose 
in  breathing  silence,  apparently  into  the  very  clouds,  and  the 
deathlike  stillness  of  the  vast  forest,  were  all  in  perfect  uni- 
son.—  Cooper. 

5.  By  the  spring,  and  in  the  wood,  and  on  the  hill,  and 
through  the  village,  I  sought  her.  —  Hawthorne. 


120  COMPOSITION    AND    RHIOTORIC 

6.  If  the  truth  must  be  tokl,  the  life  of  the  aged  loyalist 
has  been  of  such  a  scrambling  and  unsettled  character  —  he 
has  had  so  little  choice  of  friends  and  been  so  often  destitute 
of  any,  that  I  doubt  whether  he  would  refuse  a  cup  of  kindness 
with  either  Oliver  Cromwell  or  John  Hancock.  —  II.vavthorxe. 

7.  But  on  tlie  Sabbath  eve,  when  her  mother  had  gone 
early  to  bed,  and  her  gentle  sister  had  smiled  and  left  us,  as 
we  sat  alone  by  the  quiet  hearth,  it  was  her  turn  to  make  me 
feel  that  here  was  a  deeper  poetry.  —  Hawthorne. 

8.  Like  my  brother  fisherman,  I  grew  into  the  belief  that 
all  human  erudition  was  collected  in  our  pedagogue,  whose 
green  spectacles  and  solemn  phiz,  as  he  passed  to  his  school- 
house  amid  a  waste  of  sand,  might  have  gained  him  a  diploma 
from  any  college  in  New  England. —  Hawtiiokne. 

9.  In  chaste  and  warm  affections,  humble  wishes  and  honest 
toil  for  some  useful  end,  there  is  health  for  the  mind  and  quiet 
for  the  heart,  the  prospect  of  a  happy  life  and  the  fairest  hope 
of  heaven.  —  Hawthorne. 

10.  Every  breeze  wafts  intelligence  from  country  to  coun- 
try;  every  wave  rolls  it;  all  give  it  forth,  and  all  in  return 
receive  it. — Werster. 

11.  Mind  is  the  great  lever  of  all  things;  human  thought  is 
the  process  by  which  human  ends  are  ultimately  answered; 
and  the  diffusion  of  knowledge,  so  astonishing  in  the  last  half 
century,  has  rendered  innumerable  minds,  variously  gifted  by 
nature,  competent  to  be  competitors  or  fellow-workers  on  the 
theater  of  intellectual  operation. 

12.  A  spring,  which  many  long  years  before  had  induced 
the  natives  to  select  the  place  for  their  temporary  fortifica- 
tions, was  soon  cleared  of  leaves,  and  a  fountain  of  crystal 
gushed  from  the  bed  diffusing  its  waters  over  the  verdant 
hillock.  —  Cooper. 

13.  A  final  meeting  to  perfect  plans  will  be  held  Thursday 
evening,  when  the  campers  will  eat  supper  together  at  the 
"Walker  Building  on  State  Street. 


THE   SENTENCE  121 

ADVANTAGES    AND  DISADVANTAGES   OE   THE 
LOOSE   AND   OF   THE   PERIODIC    SENTENCE 

The  loose  sentence  lias  certain  advantages  which  cause 
it  to  be  preferred  by  the  majority  of  our  best  writers, 
especially  of  the  narrative  and  descriptive  writers.  An 
examination  of  the  loose  sentences  in  the  preceding  exer- 
cise will  make  clear  the  reasons  for  this  preference.  In 
the  first  place,  the  structure  of  the  loose  sentence  enables 
the  reader  to  grasp  readily  the  meaning  of  the  sentence. 
He  does  not  need  to  hold  in  mind,  at  one  time,  all 
the  parts  of  the  sentence  in  order  to  get  the  main  idea ; 
hence  he  is  relieved  from  the  strain  of  the  periodic  struc- 
ture. Again,  the  loose  sentence,  like  conversation,  is  in- 
formal, and  is  happily  adapted  to  all  kinds  .of  informal 
discourse. 

W^ith  these  advantages,  however,  comes  one  temptation 
in  the  use  of  the  loose  sentence  ;  namely,  the  introduction 
into  the  sentence,  after  it  is  complete,  of  ideas  which  are 
irrelevant  to  the  main  idea.  Unless  the  writer  keeps  well 
in  mind  the  real  point  which  he  wishes  to  make,  his  loose 
sentence  will  become  slipshod  and  slovenly,  and  will 
express  more  than  one  thought.  Note  on  page  108  the 
examples  given  under  the  heading,  "  Incorrect  Uses  of 
Compound  and  Complex  Sentences."  These  sentences 
are  disagreeably  loose  because  the  writer  has  lost  sight 
of  his  purpose  in  the  sentences  and  has  introduced  irrele- 
vant ideas.  The  task,  then,  of  an  inexperienced  writer  is 
to  prevent  his  loose  sentence  from  becoming  rambling 
and  ineffective. 

As  an  examination  of  the  periodic  sentences  in  the  exer- 
cise on  page  119  will  show,  the  periodic  sentence  possesses 
advantages  which  commend  it  to  inexperienced  writers. 


122  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Tn  the  periodic  sentence,  the  writer  must  keep  in  mind  the 
si^'uificiint  point  which  lie  wishes  his  sentence  to  make;  he 
must  not  get  away  from  that  point.  Such  a  sentence  can 
scarcely  be  vague  and  slovenly.  Suspense,  too,  essential  to 
interest  in  the  whole  composition,  has  its  value  in  the 
single  sentence,  and  becomes  a  source  of  pleasure  to  the 
reader. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  periodic  sentence  has  some  dis- 
advantages. Although,  by  reason  of  its  dignity,  it  is 
adapted  to  grave  and  formal  discourse,  it  is  often  too 
stilted  for  the  writing  of  young  students ;  it  lacks  the 
easy  conversational  charm  of  the  loose  sentence.  Again, 
since  the  subordinate  parts  of  the  sentence  must  precede 
the  expression  of  the  main  idea,  the  ending  of  the  sentence 
without  the  relief  of  the  balancing  phrase  or  clause  is 
likely  to  be  abrupt.  Still  again,  the  periodic  sentence 
may  prolong  the  element  of  suspense  beyond  the  limit 
of  pleasure. 

But  these  disadvantages  do  not  overbalance  the  dangers 
of  the  loose  sentence  with  its  tendency  to  a  lack  of  unity. 
Young  writers  may  profitably  make  frequent  use  of  sen- 
tences which  have  periodic  structure.  We  do  not  wish 
to  imply  that  all  of  their  sentences  should  be  periodic. 
For  the  sake  of  variety  it  is  well  to  use  the  three  kinds 
of  sentences.  The  essential  thing  is  to  express  most 
effectively  what  we  wish  to  say ;  the  nature  of  the  ideas 
must  determine  whether  the  sentence  is  to  be  periodic  or 
loose,  or  partly  periodic  and  partly  loose. 

EXKRCISES 

T.  Tn  the  foil  o^ving  exercise  criticise  the  loose  and  periodic 
sentences  which  are  incorrect.  Which  of  the  loose  sentences 
lack  unity  of  thought  ?     In  which  of  the  sentences  is  the  main 


THE   SENTENCE  123 

idea  obscured  hi/  the  loose  position  of  pkrases  and  clauses? 
Which  of  the  loose  sentences  should  be  ynade  periodic^  or 
partly  so?  In  which  of  the  periodic  sentences  is  the  suspense 
prolonged  beyond  the  limit  of  pleasure?  In  which  of  the 
p)eriodic  sentences  is  the  ending  abrupt?  Suggest  any  correc- 
tions that  ivill  improve  the  folloiving  sentences: 

1.  This  is  a  well-known  city,  and  many  people  come  here 
to  develop  their  talents,  and  we  get  the  benefit  of  their  work. 

2.  This  incident  started  no  train  of  thought  in  my  mind ; 
in  fact,  it  made  no  impression  whatever  upon  me ;  and  how 
surprised  I  was  upon  searching  in  my  memory  for  a  composition 
subject  to  find  that  very  incident,  which  I  thought  I  had  for- 
gotten. 

3.  The  poor  dog  is  better  off,  for  it  was  a  stray  dog  with 
no  friends,  and  now  its  miseries  are  over  ;  but  last  night,  as  I 
was  coming  home  from  church,  I  noticed  the  badly  mangled 
body  of  the  dog  lying  on  the  track,  and  I  wondered  why  the 
city  authorities  did  not  have  it  removed. 

4.  There  is  no  cause  whatever  for  hard  feeling  on  our  part 
if  the  Maimal  Training  High  School  wins  some  games  from  us; 
for  one  side  cannot  expect  to  win  all  the  time;  so  I  think 
it  would  be  a  good  plan  for  us  to  cheer  our  rival  school,  as 
it  would  give  them  encouragement  and  they  in  their  turn 
would  cheer  us. 

5.  Around  the  walls  several  oaken  bookcases,  the  lower 
shelves  of  which  were  filled  with  rows  of  gigantic  folios  and 
black  letter  quartos,  stood. 

6.  The  people  could  discern  the  stately  figure  of  Lady 
Eleanor,  through  the  large  glass  windows  of  the  coach,  as  it 
rolled  along. 

7.  Outside  the  house  the  sound  of  music  apparently  pro- 
ceeding from  a  full  band  of  military  instruments  stationed  in 
the  street,  and  playing  not  such  a  festal  strain  as  was  suited  to 
the  occasion,  but  a  slow  funeral  march,  was  heard. 


124  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

8.  Mistress  Dudley  at  last  became  an  object  of  pity  and 
fear,  through  such  legends  as  these,  together  with  the  singu- 
larity of  her  isolated  existence. 

9.  She  appears  to  have  grown  ])artially  crazed,  living  so 
continually  in  her  own  circle  of  ideas  and  never  regulating  her 
mind  by  a  proper  reference  to  present  things. 

10.  Unlike  its  ordinary  course,  the  disease,  selecting  its  vic- 
tims from  among  the  proud,  the  well  born,  and  the  haughty, 
and  lying  down  with  the  slumberers  in  silken  beds,  spread 
among  the  wealthy. 

11.  At  last  they  reached  this  important  decision,  after  many 
days  of  conference. 

12.  In  this  particular  theme,  I  attempted  to  describe  an  old 
colonial  house  which  I  thought  I  could  clearly  picture  because 
I  had  visited  it  last  summer  when  I  was  traveling  through  New 
England  with  Mr.  and  Mrs.  Brown  who  had  kindly  consented 
to  act  as  my  chaperon  because  of  their  friendship  for  my 
parents. 

II.  Comhine  the  folloiving  phrases  and  clauses  tvith  the 
statements  ivhich  they  modify^  jjlacinf/  them  in  loose  or  in 
periodic  j^osition.      Give  reasons  for  arrangement  used. 

1.  An  organ  came  into  the  street  below. 

(a)  While  I  was  at  work. 

(6)  One  day. 

(c)  Playing  the  serenade  from  Trovatore. 

2.  I  told  to  my  wife  the  story  of  Barbel. 

(a)  When  I  reached  home. 

(h)  Who  listened  with  eager  attention. 

3.  I  adopted  literature  as  a  profession  and  I  found  myself 
in  possession  of  a  fair  literary  practice. 

(a)  When  I  was  a  young  man. 

(h)  Having  passed  through  the  pre])aratory  grades, 
(c)  After  a  good  many  years  of  hard  and  often  un- 
remunerative  work. 


THE   SENTENCE  125 

4.  I  encountered  the  young  fellow. 

(a)  After  I  had  begun  my  nocturnal  rounds. 
(&)  On  the  third  or  fourth  night. 

(c)  On  a  path  not  far  from  the  house. 

(d)  Who  had  given  us  so  much  trouble. 

5.  He  turned  to  bow  to  the  king. 

(a)  As  the  youth  entered  the  arena. 
(&)  As  the  custom  was. 

(c)  Although   he  did   not   think   of   that  royal   per- 
sonage at  all. 

6.  We  found  a  pleasant  ledge,  and  we  had  an  admirable 
outlook  over  the  sea. 

(a)  Although  we  could  not   see  what  was  going  on 

below  us. 
(6)  Although   the   view  was  cut  off  in  the  direction 

of  the  town. 

(c)  On  which  we    could    see    the    sails    of    a   little 

vessel. 

(d)  In  the  far  distance. 

7.  In  the  two  latter,  however,  the  interest  of  mere  inge- 
nuity is  overshadowed  by  the  interest  of  the  narratives. 

(a)  Enriched    as  they  are   with   all  the  resources  of 
Poe's  imagination. 

8.  Perhaps  we  may  venture  to  divide  the  important  stories 
into  three  classes. 

(«)  According  to  their  dominant  motive. 

9.  We  feel  little  disgust  or  sympathy  with  his  characters. 

(a)  No  matter  what  atrocities  they  commit  or  what 
agonies  they  suffer. 
10.   Yet  the  motive  is  saved  by  the  cunning  of  the  artist 
from  being  repulsive  or  ridiculous. 

(a)  Grewsome  as  it  is. 

(b)  With  unerring  skill. 


CHAPTER   IV 

RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE 
SENTENCE 

The  three  essentials  of  an  effective  sentence,  as  we  liave 
already  learned,  are  these  :  (1)  it  must  express  one  and 
only  one  important  thought ;  (2)  the  grammatical  rela- 
tions between  its  parts  must  be  clear ;  and  (3)  the  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  must  be  so  arranged  that  the  compar- 
ative importance  of  the  ideas  will  be  evident.  When  a 
sentence  fulfills  the  first  requirement,  it  has  unity  ;  when 
it  fulfills  the  second  requirement,  it  has  coherence;  and 
when  it  fulfills  the  third  requirement,  it  has  emphasis. 
The  three  essentials  of  an  effective  sentence,  then,  are 
unity,  coherence,  and  empliasis. 

UNITY  IN   THE   SENTENCE 

A  sentence  is  said  to  have  unity  when  it  expresses  one 
and  only  one  complete  thought. 

There  should  be  in  every  sentence  one  idea  to  which  all 
other  ideas  in  the  sentence  are  subordinate.  This  impor- 
tant idea,  which  the  whole  scJitence  is  intended  to  develoj), 
may  well  be  called  the  master  idea.  Tlie  other  ideas  in 
the  sentence  may  appropriately  be  called  serving  ideas. 
Whenever  the  master  idea  in  a  sentence  stands  out  clearly 
from  the  serving  ideas,  which  develop  it,  the  sentence  has 
unity. 

120 


RHETORICAL    ESSENTIALS    OF    THE    SENTExNCE     127 

Let  us  test  the  unity  of  the  following  sentences  by 
noting  whether  or  not  they  have  master  ideas  which  stand 
out  from  the  serving  ideas : 

1.  Yet  Pope,  vindictive  and  spiteful  as  lie  seems,  loved  his 
mother  with  a  touching  and  beautiful  devotion ;  crippled  as  he 
was,  he  had  the  heart  of  a  soldier. 

In  the  first  clause  of  this  sentence,  we  get  the  idea 
that  Pope,  in  spite  of  moral  defects,  was  affectionate  and 
loyal  to  his  mother ;  in  the  second  clause,  we  get  the 
idea  that,  in  spite  of  physical  weakness,  he  was  brave  and 
courageous.  In  the  whole  sentence  we  get  the  larger 
idea  that  Pope,  in  spite  of  moral  and  physical  defects,  had 
some  redeeming  traits  of  character.  The  ideas  in  the 
separate  clauses  of  the  sentence  may  be  called  serving 
ideas,  because  they  work  together  to  give  us  a  larger 
thought  or  a  master  idea,  which  is  not  found  in  full  in 
either  clause. 

2.  Everything  Avas  in  a  state  of  confusion:  children  were 
screaming;  Avomen  Avere  fainting  from  terror;  and  men  were 
running  to  and  fro  trying  to  give  assistance  to  the  wounded. 

In  this  sentence  the  master  idea  of  confusion  is  devel- 
oped by  means  of  four  clauses.  In  no  one  clause  do  you 
get  a  clear. notion  of  the  confusion  which  the  whole  sen- 
tence brings  vividly  before  3"0U. 

3.  They  first  attempted  to  bribe  him;  then  they  tried  to 
intimidate  him,  but  the  soldier  stood  firm  in  his  loyalty  to  his 
country. 

The  master  idea,  that  the  soldier's  integrity  was  incor- 
ruptible, is  developed  through  the  serving  ideas  expressed 
in  the  separate  clauses,  in  no  one  of  which  is  the  master 
idea  fully  expressed. 


128  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

4.  He  who  conquers  his  own  sjjirit  is  greater  than  he  who 
taketh  a  city. 

The  master  idea  in  this  sentence  is,  that  spiritual  con- 
quest is  greater  than  military  conquest. 

These  sentences,  then,  have  unity,  because  each  sentence 
has  a  master  idea  which  stands  out  more  prominently  than 
the  ideas  which  help  to  develop  it. 

Often,  however,  sentences  are  so  constructed  that  either 
they  have  no  master  ideas,  or,  if  they  have,  the  master 
ideas  do  not  stand  out  clearly  from  the  subordinate  ideas 
which  are  intended  to  develop  them. 

Just  how  unity  is  violated  in  these  respects  will  be  dis- 
cussed in  the  following  sections. 

Lack  of  Unity  due  to  Partial  or  Unrelated  Ideas.  —  In 
making  a  paragraph,  every  sentence  should  form  a  dis- 
tinct step  or  develop  one  master  idea.  This  is  often  a 
grievous  task  for  the  young  writer.  He  is  likely  to  fall 
into  error  by  writing  three  or  more  sentences  to  express 
only  one  important  idea  or,  just  as  often,  he  may  try  to 
make  one  sentence  hold  three  or  more  unrelated  ideas.  His 
care  in  revision  will  soon  show  him  that  both  are  serious 
violations  of  the  unity  of  the  paragraph.  In  tlie  follow- 
ing sentences,  the  pupil  will  observe  both  kinds  of  viola- 
tions : 

1.  Night  came  on.  Tlie  magi  sought  shelter  with  tlie 
peasants  in  the  valley  below.  The  peasants  were  a  hospitable 
people. 

Now  since  these  three  statements  make  only  one  im- 
portant point,  namely,  tliat  "the  magi  sought  rest  and 
shelter  with  the  hospitable  peasants  in  the  valley,"  we  can 
readily  see  how  the  use  of  the  three  sentences  violates  the 
law  of  unity,  and  we  can  understand  why  the  one  sentence, 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     129 

As  night  came  on,  the  magi  sought  rest  and  shelter  with  the 
hospitable  people  in  the  valley  below, 

is  better  than  the  three  statements. 

2.  When  we  studied  "  Sigurd  the  Volsung,"  I  thought  that 
it  was  the  finest  piece  of  literature  in  the  IIB  English  course; 
but  now  that  we  are  studying  "  Coriolanus,"  I  have  decided 
that  Shakespeare  is  a  greater  writer  than  Morris ;  yet  I  do  not 
like  the  character  of  Coriolanus  because  he  betrayed  Rome  to 
the  Volscians,  and  I  was  really  glad  when  he  was  killed  by 
Aufidius  and  his  conspirators,  although  I  felt  sorry  for  his 
mother ;  for  I  think  that  she  truly  loved  Rome. 

The  lack  of  unity  in  this  sentence  is  due  to  the  use  in 
one  sentence  of  the  three  unrelated  ideas :  (1)  that  the 
writer  likes  Shakspere  better  than  he  likes  Morris;  (2) 
that  he  disapproves  of  the  treachery  of  Coriolanus;  and 
(3)  that  he  feels  sympathy  for  the  mother  of  Coriolanus. 
Now  each  of  these  ideas  has  been  so  developed  as  to  make 
it  a  unit  of  thought  in  the  paragraph  —  each  is  important 
enough  to  demand  for  its  expression  a  separate  sentence. 

The  unified  sentence  is  the  development  of  an  idea  im- 
portant enough  to  be  a  unit  of  thought  in  the  paragraph; 
it  is  not  the  expression  of  a  small  portion  of  a  thought  or 
of  several  unrelated  ideas. 

Lack  of  Unity  due  to  Unskillful  Use  of  the  Compound 
Sentence.  —  The  compound  sentence  assumes  that  the  ideas 
of  the  independent  clauses  are  equally  important  —  that  all 
the  clauses  have  equal  value  in  the  development  of  the 
sentence.  A  compound  sentence  constructed  in  accordance 
with  this  principle  has  unity.  For  instance,  in  the  bal- 
anced sentence,^ 

1  A  balanced  sentence  consists  of  two  statements  opposed  in  meaning. 
It  is  generally  used,  without  a  connective,  to  express  sharp  contrast ;  as, 
Optimism  brings  joy ;    pessimism,  pain. 

K 


130  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Labor  brings  pleasure  ;  idleness  brings  pain, 

the  clauses  are  of  equal  value  in  the  expression  of  the  one 
thought,  that  labor  is  unlike  idleness,  bringing  pleasure 
instead  of  pain.  Again,  in  the  following  compound 
sentence, 

The  fields  were  plundered;  the  houses  were  sacked;  and  the 
women  and  children  were  cruelly  murdered, 

it  will  he  seen  that  all  the  clauses  contribute  equally  to 
the  development  of  the  idea  of  ruin  and  destruction. 
Whenever,  then,  a  compound  sentence  is  so  constructed 
that  all  of  its  clauses  exj^ress  ideas  of  equal  rank  in  the 
development  of  the  central  thought  of  the  sentence,  it 
has  unity. 

Often,  however,  the  compound  sentence  violates  the 
principle  of  unity.  When  all  the  developing  ideas  in  a 
sentence,  regardless  of  their  importance,  are  expressed 
in  independent  clauses,  the  central  idea  of  the  sentence  is 
likely  to  be  obscured.  Again,  when  an  idea  which  is  sub- 
ordinate to  the  central  thought  of  the  sentence  is  expressed 
in  an  independent  clause,  it  often  seems  not  to  be  related 
at  all  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence.     In  the  sentence, 

I  came  home  from  school,  and  I  found,  to  my  sorrow,  that 
mother  was  ill, 

tlie  thought  of  "coming  home  from  school  "  seems  wholly 
unrelated  to  the  thought  of  "finding  my  mother  ill." 
Changing  the  first  clause,  which  stands  for  the  subordinate 
idea  of  time,  to  "When  I  came  home  from  school,"  we  see 
the  comparative  importance  of  the  two  ideas  and  their 
real  relation  to  each  other.     'J'hc  complex  form. 

When  I  came  homo  from  sflioul,  I  found,  to  my  sorrow,  that 
my  mother  was  ill. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     131 

by  subordinating  the  thought  of  "  coming  home  from 
school"  to  the  more  important  thought  of  "finding  my 
mother  ill,"  makes  the  central  idea  duly  prominent  and 
gives  the  sentence  unity. 

The  compound  sentence  has  unity  when  its  clauses 
balance  each  other  or  when  they  enforce  each  other  by 
expressing  similar  ideas.  It  lacks  unity  when  its  clauses 
express  ideas  of  unequal  rank,  or  unrelated  ideas. 

Note.  —  The  grammatical  forms  of  sentence  most  favorable  to 
the  securing  of  unity  are  the  simple  sentence  with  its  participial, 
prepositional,  or  infinitive  phrases,  and  the  complex  sentence  with  its 
dependent  clauses.  The  rhetorical  form  most  favorable  to  unity  is 
the  periodic  sentence.  For  a  discussion  of  the  advantages  of  these 
forms,  refer  to  the  preceding  chapter. 

Lack  of  Unity  due  to  a  Change  of  Subjects.  —  The  sub- 
ject of  the  first  clause  of  a  compound  or  of  a  complex  sen- 
tence is  often  the  unifying  part  of  the  sentence;  it  suggests 
the  point  of  view  in  tlie  whole  sentence.  In  this  case 
the  subject  of  the  first  clause  should,  for  the  sake  of  unity, 
be  retained  in  the  second  clause.     In  the  sentence, 

Webster  was  a  powerful  speaker ;  his  listeners  were  always 
held  spellbound  by  his  eloquence, 

the  point  of  view  in  the  whole  sentence  is  Webster,  and 
the  purpose  of  both  clauses  is  to  express  an  attribute  — 
eloquence  —  belonging  to  Webster.  The  point  of  view  in 
the  second  clause  is,  in  the  mind  of  the  writer,  really  the 
same  as  his  point  of  view  in  the  first  clause.  The  reader, 
however,  loses  the  thought  of  eloquence  as  belonging  to 
Webster  and  goes  to  the  thought  of  eloquence  as  it  affected 
Webster's  listeners.  So  the  writer  has  failed  in  his  pur- 
pose and  has  committed  a  violation  of  unity»  For  the 
sake  of  unity,  then,  the  sentence  should  read, 


132  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Webster  was  a  powerful  speaker ;  he  never  failed  to  hold  his 
audience  spellbound  by  his  eloquence. 

How  to  secure  Unity. — It  will  be  helpful  to  the  pupil 
to  keep  in  niiinl  the  following  principles: 

1.  The  sentence,  whether  long  or  short,  must  make  a 
distinct  step  in  the  paragraph. 

2.  It  must  not  express  unrelated  ideas. 

3.  It  must  make  the  central  idea  prominent. 

4.  Whether  complex  or  compound,  it  sliould  retain  the 
subject  of  the  first  clause  in  the  other  clauses,  unless  there 
is  a  change  in  the  speaker's  or  writer's  point  of  view. 

EXERCISES 

I.  In  the  folloiving  selection  from  Irving' s  "  Conquest  of 
G-ranada,'^  each  group  of  statements  makes  one  important 
point  in  the  paragraph.  Combine  the  sentences  of  each  group 
into  one  sentence.  Before  making  the  comhination,  decide 
ivhat  point  tlie  sentence  is  intended  to  make;  then  construct 
the  sentence  in  such  a  way  as  to  7nake  the  central  idea  promi- 
nent. 

1.  King  Ferdinand  rode  about.  He  was  attended  by  a  small 
body  of  cavaliers  and  cuirassiers.  He  was  appointing  the  vari- 
ous stations  of  the  camp. 

2.  He  directed  a  body  of  soldiers  to  possess  themselves  of 
an  important  height.  The  soldiers  were  to  act  as  an  advanced 
guard.  The  height  overlooked  the  city.  He  retired  to  a  tent 
to  take  refreshment. 

3.  At  the  table  he  was  startled  by  an  uproar.  He  looked 
forth.  He  beheld  his  soldiers  fleeing  before  a  su])erior  force 
of  the  enemy. 

4.  The  king  had  no  other  armor  but  a  cuirass.  He  seized 
a  lance,  however.     He  sprang  upon  his  horse.     He  galloped  to 


RHETORICAL    ESSENTIALS    OF   THE    SENTENCE     133 

protect  the  fugitives.     He  was  followed  by  a  handful  of  his 
knights  and  cuirassiers. 

5.  The  soldiers  saw  the  king  hastening  to  their  aid.  They 
turned  upon  their  pursuers. 

6.  Ferdinand  grew  eager.  He  threw  himself  into  the  midst 
of  the  foe.  He  sought  to  draw  his  sword.  The  sword  hung  at 
his  saddle  bow.     He  sought  in  vain. 

7.  Never  had  he  been  exposed  to  such  peril.  He  was  sur- 
rounded by  the  enemy  without  a  weapon  wherewith  to  defend 
himself. 

II.  Test  the  unity  in  the  folloiving  sentences.  Explain 
each  violation.  In  which  is  the  lack  of  unity  due  to  the  ex- 
pression of  more  than  one  thought  9  In  ivhich  is  it  due  to 
the  failure  to  set  forth  the  comparative  importance  of  the  ideas 
expressed?  In  which  is  it  due  to  a  change  of  subjects  in 
the  clauses,  ivhere  there  is  no  change  in  the  point  of  view  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer  ? 

1.  She  turned  for  my  inspection,  and,  with  the  color  flam- 
ing in  her  cheeks,  she  looked  like  one  of  her  ancestors  from 
the  Emerald  Isle. 

2.  We  entered  the  class  room  and  were  surprised  to  find  a 
substitute  in  the  place  of  the  regular  teacher. 

3.  The  little  woman  had  a  kind  face,  and  as  she  seemed  to 
be  in  distress,  I  felt  sorry  for  her. 

4.  Carlyle  proves  that  the  germ  of  Christianity  itself  is 
hero-worship,  and  in  the  latter  part  of  the  first  lecture  he 
declares  that  unconsciously  Paganism  is  an  important  factor 
yet,  and  that  to  become  acquainted  with  it  will  bring  the  reader 
into  a  closer  relation  with  the  past;  for  he  claims  that  the 
whole  past  is  a  precious  possession  of  the  present. 

5.  He  next  shows  how  these  child-men  in  their  wonder 
worshiped  everything  about  them,  and  is  not  worship  tran- 
scendent wonder  ? 


134  COMPOSTTTOX    AND    RHETORIC 

6.  He  thinks  that  the  great  event  of  an  epoch  is  the  ar- 
rival  of  the  thinker,  and  by  reading  the  biographies  of  tliese 
thinkers  we  learn  the  history  of  the  world ;  for  every  time  a 
thinker  expresses  himself,  he  spreads  a  shadow  of  his  own  like- 
ness over  sections  of  the  world's  histor}^ 

7.  Being  only  a  girl,  I  have  not  had  all  the  dre;uns  of  fame 
that  boys  seem  to  experience  ;  but  when  younger  I  was  quite  a 
tomboy  and  I  confess  that  I  had  several  boyish  ambitions ;  of 
course  not  that  of  being  a  pirate  or  an  Indian — I  never  took 
to  that  —  but  I  wanted  to  run  away  and  become  a  gypsy;  but 
my  mirror  told  me  that  the  sun  would  make  my  complexion 
brown,  so  I  abandoned  this  idea. 

8.  My  favorite  subjects  in  the  grades  were  German  and 
history;  I  now  like  English  and  algebra  best;  but  I  do  not 
enjoy  the  study  of  Latin,  for  I  can  see  no  practical  value  in  it. 

9.  It  was  on  a  midsummer's  day,  and  I  was  walking 
leisurely  down  one  of  the  principal  streets  of  Jamestown, 
Virginia. 

10.  Passers-by  were  bundled  up  tight;  the  women's  furs 
M^ere  fastened  high  about  their  throats;  men  wore  ear  muffs 
and  gloves ;  and  even  the  children  were  running  to  get  out  of 
the  cold. 

11.  At  this  moment  I  discovered  that  my  rain  coat  was 
becoming  quite  damp,  and  looking  up,  I  caught  the  welcome 
sign  of  an  inn,  to  which  I  gladly  made  my  way. 

12.  Holmes  has  written  many  interesting  poems,  and  their 
beauty  is  due  to  their  originality  and  delicate  humor. 

13.  Holmes  is  ever  finding  a  new  way  to  say  a  thing ;  this 
alone  is  enough  to  make  his  writing  enjoyable ;  and  in  the  end 
the  reader  generally  agrees  with  him — at  least  I  found  myself 
doing  so  whenever  I  sifted  his  statements. 

14.  Although  he  believed  that  the  Indians  were  going  to 
kill  him  by  some  horrible  method,  Uncas  showed  not  the 
slightest  fear;  and  revenge  being  all  the  people  wanted,  Uncas 
thought  his  life  would  save  the  rest  of  tlie  people. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     135 

15.  Yesterday  afternoon  we  attended  a  reception  given  by 
Miss  Brannon,  wliose  father  has  returned  to  Washington  after 
a  weelc's  visit. 

16.  I  am  a  great  lover  of  music;  but  I  did  not  care  for  it  at 
all  formerly;  this  distaste  was  due  to  a  lack  of  cultivation. 

17.  Every  one  is  surprised  at  the  marriage  of  Theodore 
Watts-Dunton,  who  has  made  his  home  for  many  years  with 
Swinburne,  the  great  English  poet. 

18.  Lowell's  Commemoration  Ode  was  read  before  the 
Harvard  students  who  had  returned  from  the  Civil  War;' in 
many  respects  it  is  his  greatest  poem. 

19.  We  can  easily  trace  Browning's  influence  in  the  early 
writings  of  William  Morris,  the  poet,  artist,  craftsman,  and 
socialist,  who  urged  his  followers  to  bring  art  into  the  lives  of 
the  poorest  people,  and  then  proceeded  himself  to  manufacture 
paper,  tapestries,  and  furniture  which  only  the  rich  could 
buy. 

20.  The  Civic  Improvement  Society  is  taking  every  measure 
possible  to  save  Niagara  Falls  from  the  jaws  of  commercial 
greed ;  this  same  spirit  of  greed  Roosevelt  is  trying  to  check 
by  advising  in  his  message  to  Congress  a  supervisory  federal 
control  over  the  railroad  and  insurance  companies. 

21.  Carlyle  chooses  interesting  subjects  for  his  lectures,  and 
they  are  treated  with  perfect  mastery  of  style. 

22.  As  we  came  into  the  harbor,  the  headlands  of  Ireland 
met  our  view  for  the  first  time. 

23.  John  wished  to  attend  the  game,  but  could  not  do  so  on 
account  of  a  severe  cold;  however,  he  is  better  now. 

24.  The  water-fowl  patiently  pursued  its  journey,  and  finally 
its  destination  was  reached  in  safety. 

25.  Lord  Byron  was  very  sensitive  about  his  lameness,  and 
he  would  often  fall  into  fits  of  passion  with  his  mother  ;  then 
he  would  repent  of  his  anger  and  implore  her  forgiveness. 

26.  In  this  store  was  displayed  a  tree,  and  this  tree,  as  the 
story  goes,  caught  fire. 


136  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

27.  When  the  lecturer  arose  to  speak,  the  vast  audience 
greeted  him  with  applause. 

28.  The  boy  was  disobedient  and  the  teacher  punished  him. 

29.  As  the  servant  was  faithful  and  honest,  his  master 
treated  him  with  great  kindness. 

Test  of  Unity.  —  When  a  sentence  has  unity,  tlie  idea 
which  it  develops,  that  is,  the  master  idea  of  the  sentence, 
can  usually  be  expressed  in  a  word,  phrase,  or  statement. 
Note  the  following  examples  : 

1.  Sir,  those  who  espouse  the  doctrines  of  nullification  re- 
ject, it  seems  to  me,  the  first  great  principle  of  all  republican 
liberty;  that  is,  that  the  majority  must  govern. — aVebster. 

Idea  develoi^ed,  or  master  idea  :  The  doctrine  of  nulli- 
fication is  opposed  to  the  principle  of  republicanism,  or 
government  by  the  majority. 

2.  On  my  arrival  I  had  found  everything  in  the  freshness 
of  May  ;  the  foliage  of  the  trees  was  still  tender  and  trans- 
parent ;  the  pomegranate  had  not  shed  its  brilliant  crimson 
blossoms ;  the  orchards  of.  the  Xenil  and  the  Darrs  were  in  full 
bloom  ;  the  rocks  were  hung  with  wild  flowers,  and  Granada 
seemed  completely  surrounded  by  a  wilderness  of  roses,  among 
which  innumerable  nightingales  sang,  not  merely  in  the  night, 
but  all  day  long.  —  Irving. 

Idea  developed,  or  master  idea :  The  freshness  and 
beauty  of  May. 

EXERCISE 

JExpress  in  a  ivord^  phrase^  or  clause  the  master  idea  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences: 

1.  This  [the  Alhambra]  still  retains  its  ancient,  Oriental 
character,  though  it  is  stamped  with  the  touching  traces  of 
decline. —  Irving. 


RHETORICAL   ESSEXTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     137 

2.  Yet,  without  being  either  a  poet  or  a  scholar,  he  [Irving] 
goes  so  directly  to  all  that  is  best  in  human  nature  that  he  wins 
for  his  admirers  both  poets  and  scholars,  and  at  the  same  time 
that  great  audience  of  the  uncritical  that  poets  and  scholars 
cannot  always  win.  —  Newcomer  :  American  Literature. 

3.  He  [Cooper]  lacked  Brown's  subtlety  of  mental  analysis, 
but  he  was  in  every  way  saner  and  wholesonier,  with  a  stronger 
grasp  upon  the  realities  of  life. 

—  Newcomer  :  American  Literature. 

4.  Let  us  thank  God  that  we  live  in  an  age  when  something 
has  influence  beside  the  bayonet,  and  when  the  sternest  author- 
ity does  not  venture  to  encounter  the  scorching  power  of  public 
reproach.  —  Webster  :  Bunker  Hill  Monument. 

5.  Our  history  and  our  condition,  all  that  is  gone  before  us, 
and  all  that  surrounds  us,  authorize  the  belief  that  popular 
governments  though  subject  to  occasional  variations,  in  form 
perhaps  not  always  for  the  better,  may  yet  in  their  general 
character  be  as  durable  and  permanent  as  other  systems.  —  Ibid. 

6.  Let  us  develop  the  resources  of  our  land,  call  forth  its 
powers,  build  up  its  institutions,  promote  all  its  great  interests, 
and  see  whether  we  in  oiir  day  and  generation  may  not  perform 
something  worthy  to  be  remembered.  —  Ibid. 

7.  Juno  promised  him  power  and  riches ;  Minerva,  glory 
and  renown  in  war;  Venus,  the  fairest  of  women  for  his  wife,  — 
each  attempting  to  bias  the  judge  in  her  own  favor. 

—  Gayley  :  Classic  Myths. 

8.  Vulcan  fabricated  a  splendid  suit  of  armor  for  Achilles ; 
first  a  shield  adorned  with  elaborate  devices,  then  a  helmet 
crested  with  gold,  then  a  corselet  and  greaves  of  impenetrable 
temper,  all  perfectly  adapted  to  the  hero's  form  and  of  con- 
summate workmanship.  —  Ibid. 

9.  The  martyr  cannot  be  dishonored ;  every  lash  inflicted 
is  a  tongue  of  fame ;  every  prison  a  more  illustrious  abode  ; 


138  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

every  burned  book  or  house  enlightens  the  world  ;  every  sup- 
pressed or  expunged  word  reverberates  through  the  earth  from 
side  to  side.  —  Emerson  :  Compensation. 

10.  Nothing  can  work  me  damage  except  myself;  the  harm 
that  I  sustain,  I  carry  about  with  me,  and  am  never  a  real 
sufferer  but  by  my  own  fault.  —  St.  Bernard. 

11.  The  death  of  a  dear  friend,  wife,  brother,  lover,  which 
seemed  nothing  but  a  ])rivation,  somewhat  later  assumes  the 
aspect  of  a  guide  or  genius,  for  it  commonly  operates  revolu- 
tions in  our  way  of  life,  terminates  an  epoch  of  infancy  or  of 
youth  which  was  waiting  to  be  closed,  breaks  up  a  wonted  occu- 
pation or  a  household  or  style  of  living,  and  allows  the  forma- 
tion of  new  ones  more  friendly  to  the  growth  of  character. 

—  Emerson. 

COHERENCE  IN  THE  SENTENCE 

A  sentence  is  said  to  have  coherence  when  the  grammati- 
cal relations  between  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  com- 
posing it  are  unmistakably  clear. 

The  principal  causes  of  incoherence  may  be  understood 
through  a  study  of  sentences  which  violate  the  laws  of 
coherence.  Some  of  these  causes  are  :  (1)  incoherent 
position ;  (2)  incoherent  reference ;  (3)  incoherent  uses 
of  connectives ;   C-l)  incoherent  changes  of  construction. 

Incoherent  Position  of  Words,  Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

1.  Harry  received  a  delicious  box  of  candy. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  position  of  the  word 
"delicious,"  which  seems  to  modify  "box,''  whereas  it 
really  modifies  "candy." 

2.  The  Commercial  Club  gave  a  banquet  in  honor  of  James 
Whitcomb  Riley,  the  Hoosier  poet,  consisting  of  eight  courses. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     139 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  position  of  the  phrase, 
"  consisting  of  eight  courses,"  which  seems  to  modify 
" poet,"  whereas  it  really  modifies  "banquet." 

3.  Holmes  attempted  to  save  the  ship  by  writing  a  poem, 
which  was  soon  to  be  blown  to  pieces. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  tlie  position  of  the  clause, 
"which  was  soon  to  be  blown  to  pieces,"  which  seems  to 
modifythe  word  "poem,"  whereas  it  really  modifies  "ship." 

A  skillful  rearrangement  of  the  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses,  the  positions  of  which  have  given  rise  to  ambiguity 
or  doubtful  meaning,  will  make  these  sentences  coherent: 

1.  Harry  received  a  box  of  delicious  candy. 

2.  The  Commercial  Club  gave  a  banquet,  consisting  of  eight 
courses,  in  honor  of  James  Whitcomb  Riley,  the  Hoosier  poet. 

3.  Holmes  attemped  to  save  the  ship,  which  was  soon  to  be 
blown  to  pieces,  by  writing  a  poem. 

Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  should,  for  the  sake  of  clear- 
ness, be  placed  as  near  as  possible  to  the  words  which  they 
modify. 

Incoherent  Reference  of  Pronouns  and  Participles. 

•     1.   Ellen  told  Margaret  that  she  should  always  regret  her 
action  in  the  matter. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  doubtful  reference  of  the 
pronouns  "she"  and  "her";  we  cannot  determine  whether 
the  antecedent  of  "she"  and  "her"  is  "Ellen"  or  "Mar- 
garet." 

The  ambiguity  in  this  sentence  can  be  removed  by 
changing  the  indirect  quotation  to  a  direct  one;  thus, 

Ellen  said  to  Margaret,  "You  will  always  regret  your  action 
in  this  matter," 
or. 


140  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Ellen  said  to  Margaret,  '*I  shall  always  regret  my  action  in 
this  matter." 

2.  Mrs.  Smith  invited  me  to  a  reception,  which  I  gladly 
accepted. 

Tlie  incoherence  is  due  to  the  seeming'  reference  of 
"wliicli"  to  "reception."  Logically,  "which"  refers  to 
the  idea  expressed  in  the  verb  "invited";  grammatically  it 
can  refer  only  to  a  definite  noun  or  pronoun.  The  ambi- 
guity can  be  removed  by  supplying  a  definite  reference 
word  or  antecedent  for  "which";   thus, 

Mrs.  Smith  invited  me  to  a  reception,  an  invitation  which  I 
gladly  accepted. 

NoTK.  —  Althougli  a  iimnber  of  reputable  writers  use  "wliicli" 
without  a  definite  iioiiu  or  pronoun  antecedent,  such  usage  is  not 
sanctioned  by  the  best  authorities,  and  should  be  shunned  by  young 
writers. 

3.  The  trains  being  delayed,  they  remained  in  the  city  over 
night. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  seeming  reference  of 
"they"  to  "trains."  The  ambiguity  can  be  removed  by 
substituting  a  definite  noun  for  "they";  thus, 

The  trains  being  delayed,  the  j^arty  remained  in  the  city  over 
night. 

4.  Staggering  along  most  pitifully,  we  stood  watclnng  the 
drmdvard. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  j)articipial 
phrase,  "staggering  along  most  pitifully,"  seems  to  refer  to 
the  subject"we";  logically  it  refers  to  "drunkard."  The 
ambiguity  can  be  removed  either  by  changing  the  subject 
of  the  sentence  to  "drunkard";  thus, 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     141 

Staggering  along  most  pitifully,  the  drunkard  attracted  our 
attention, 

or,  by  changing  the  position  of  the  phrase, 

Staggering  along  most  pitifully. 
Thus, 

We  stood  watching  the  drunkard  stagger  along  most  pitifully. 

5.  Reaching  the  top  of  the  mountain,  a  most  glorious  scene 
met  our  eyes. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  lack  of  a  word  in  the 
clause  following  the  participial  phrase,  to  which  the  parti- 
ciple "reaching"  logically  refers;  grammatically,  but  in- 
coherently, it  refers  to  the  subject  "scene."  The  ambi- 
guity can  be  removed  in  two  ways  :  (1)  by  changing  the 
subject  of  the  sentence  from  "  scene  "  to  "  we,"  and  thus 
supplying  a  word  to  which  the  participle  "  reaching  "  will 
logically,  as  well  as  grammatically,  refer ;  as, 

Reaching  the  top  of  the  mountain,  we  beheld  a  most  glorious 
scene ; 

or,  (2)  by  changing  the  phrase,  "  Reaching  the  top  of  the 
mountain,"  to  a  dependent  clause,  and  thus  removing  the 
necessity  for  a  special  reference  word  in  the  independent 
clause ;  as, 

As  we  reached  the  top  of  the  mountain,  a  glorious  scene  met 
our  eyes. 

Pronouns  and  participles  should  refer  clearly  to  the  words 
with  which  they  are  logically  connected. 

Ambiguity  due  to  incoherent  reference  of  pronouns  may 
be  avoided  :  (1)  by  using  a  direct  quotation  in  place  of 
an  indirect  statement ;  (2)  by  supplying  a  definite  noun 
or  pronoun,  in  place  of  a  clause,  as  the  antecedent  of  the 


142  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

pronoun  which;  (3)  by  substituting  for  vague  pronouns, 
definite  nouns,  or  otlier  definite  words,  such  as  former 
and  latter. 

Ambiguity  due  to  incoherent  reference  of  participles 
may  be  avoided:  (1)  by  using  as  the  subject  of  the  chiuse 
with  which  an  introductory  participial  phrase  is  connected, 
the  word  to  whicli  the  participle  logically  refers;  (2)  by 
expanding  into  a  dependent  clause  a  participial  phrase 
wliich  does  not  logically  refer  to  any  word  in  the  clause 
which  follows;  (3)  by  placing  a  participial  phrase  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

Note.  —  This  discussion  does  not  apply  to  absolute 
phrases ;  such  as. 

The  conference  being  ended,  Csesar  dismissed  all  the  envoys 
but  one.  • 

Incoherent  Uses  of  Connectives. 

1.  The  story  was  original ;  but  it  was  thoroughly  enjoyed. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  use  of  "but"  for  "  hence." 
The  idea  of  the  last  clause  is  not,  as  "  but "  suggests, 
opposed  to  tlie  idea  expressed  in  the  first  clause  ;  the 
relation  between  the  clauses  is  really  that  of  cause  and 
effect.     The  sentence  sliould  read, 

The  story  was  original ;  lience  it  was  tliorouglily  enjoyed. 

2.  Ernest  was  kind  and  gentle;  for  lie  never  spoke  a  harsh 
word  to  any  one. 

"  For "  is  used  where  there  should  be  no  connective. 
The  last  clause  does  not,  as  the  use  of  "  for "  suggests, 
express  cause  or  reason ;  it  is  added  simply  to  enforce, 
by  way  of  illustration,  the  general  statement  made  in 
the  first  clause. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     143 

The  sentence  should  read, 

Ernest  was  kind  and  gentle ;  he  never  spoke  a  harsh  word 
to  any  one. 

3.  The  course  in  mathematics  is  very  difficult,  and  it  is  also 
very  interesting. 

The  sentence  should  read, 

The  course  in  mathematics  is  very  difficult,  but  it  is  very 
interesting. 

For  the  sake  of  coherence  such  connectives  must  be  used 
as  will  express  exactly  the  relation  which  the  writer  has 
in  mind. 

Note. — Review  Study  of  Connectives,  chapter  III, 
page  92. 

EXERCISES 

Criticise  the  incoherence  m  the  foUoiving  sentences  : 

1.  Grandmother  told  us  many  stories  concerning  the 
treasure  in  the  old  trunk  to  which  we  listened  attentively. 

2.  A  little  brown  thrush  sprang  up  from  the  bush  which  had 
been  flooding  the  garden  with  its  melody. 

3.  Singing  a  bacchanalian  song,  we  saw  the  revelers  pass 
through  the  streets. 

4.  First  came  an  old  gentleman  with  a  ruddy  face  who 
scanned  every  new  corner  looking  for  a  friend. 

5.  We  studied  "  Silas  Marner  "  until  midnight,  which  had 
been  assigned  for  the  following  day. 

6.  We  received  a  bad  box  of  eggs  from  the  grocer. 

7.  A  family  has  rented  our  house  for  the  winter  consisting 
of  a  father  and  mother  and  ten  children. 

8.  The  boys  entered  a  large  ring  filled  with  enthusiasm 
and  began  their  mimic  sparring. 


144  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

9.  At  the  ringing  of  the  bolls  the  pupils  will  pass  through 
the  halls,  to  be  sounded  at  twelve  o'clock,  and  leave  the 
building. 

10.  The  minister  preached  a  sermon  on  sin,  which  all  agreed 
was  very  interesting. 

11.  I  only  advise  you  that  you  may  be  on  your  guard. 

12.  He  was  almost  frightened  to  death. 

13.  Marmion  thought  of  the  base  deceit  he  had  practiced 
when  he  was  dying  on  the  battle-field. 

14.  Lost:    A  lady's    gold    watch   entering   the   Sterne  Dry 
Goods  Store,  enameled  and  studded  with  diamonds. 

II.     What   is  the   cause   of  incoherence   in  the  folloiving 
sentences?     Rewrite  the  sentences,  removing  the  ambiguity. 

1.  The  host  told  young  Blount  that  he  would  not  fear  the 
English  army  unless  he  was  a  member  of  it. 

2.  Then  the  king  moved  by  the  tears  of  Douglas  asked 
him  to  forget  his  thoughtless  words  and  told  him  that  he 
honored  him  and  loved  him  as  much  as  he  loved  him. 

3.  He  invited  me  to  a  song  recital,  which  I  was  glad  to 
accept. 

4.  A  law  should  be  passed  prohibiting  the  smoke  nuisance  ; 
everybody  is  anxious  for  it. 

5.  The  governor  is  opposed  to  capital  punishment  as  a 
penalty  for  murder ;  many  influential  members  of  his  party, 
however,  favor  it. 

6.  By  learning  our  vocabularies  thoroughly,  Latin  can 
easily  be  translated. 

7.  Ascending  the  hill,  many  difficulties  beset  us. 

8.  As  the  troops  came  in  sight,  retreating  rapidly,  the 
enemy  scrambled  up  the  opposing  hill. 

9.  Singing  songs  of  triumph,  the  battle  was  waged  fiercely 
Viy  the  Indians. 

10.    After  urging  every  one  to  be  present  at  the  following 
meeting,  the  council  adjourned. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     145 

11.  Lifting  his  voice  to  the  highest  pitch,  the  orator's 
speech  ended  with  an  entreaty  to  his  followers  to  be  revenged. 

12.  Though  advised  of  this  action,  it  does  not  meet  my 
approval. 

13.  Though  published  several  months  ago,  the  public  is 
still  in  ignorance  of  the  real  calamity. 

14.  While  reading  Sesame  and  Lilies,  a  new  thought  came 
to  me. 

15.  In  the  foremost  part  of  the  vanguard,  fighting  most 
valiantly.  Lady  Clare  saw  De  Wilton,  her  lover,  and  her  heart 
filled  with  pride. 

16.  After  depositing  all  my  money  in  bank,  the  rumor 
reached  me  that  the  bank  was  on  the  eve  of  failure. 

Incoherence  due  to  Changes  of  Construction.  —  Any  shift 
of  construction  in  the  sentence,  which  does  not  represent 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  writer's  point  of  view,  is 
apt  to  cause  incoherence  in  the  sentence.  Some  of  the 
shifts  which  are  commonly  made  without  con-esponding 
changes  in  the  writer's  point  of  view  are  :  (1)  changes 
of  subjects  in  compound  and  in  complex  sentences  ;  (2) 
changes  in  the  voice,  mode,  or  tense  of  verbs  ;  (3) 
changes  from  one  form  of  expression  to  another.  Note 
the  following  sentences  : 

1.  Lincoln  was  a  great  benefactor  to  his  country ;  not  only 
the  slaves  were  freed  by  him,  but  the  Union  was  preserved 
through  his  efforts. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  a  change  of  subjects  in  the 
compound  sentence.  The  purpose  of  the  sentence  is  to 
develop  the  idea  of  Lincoln  as  a  benefactor.  The  change 
of  subjects  in  the  second  and  in  the  third  clauses  diverts 
the  attention  of  the  reader  from  Lincoln,  who  is  upper- 
most in  the  writer's  mind,  to  two  historical  facts  with 
which  Lincoln  was  associated.     In  the  first  member  of  the 


146  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

compound  sentence,  the  emphasis  is  properly  placed  upon 
Lincoln ;  in  the  second  and  third  members,  the  emphasis 
is  incoherently  placed  upon  the  historical  facts.  Before 
we  have  finished  the  reaaing  of  the  sentence,  we  have  lost 
sight  of  Lincoln  as  a  great  benefactor,  and  are  thinking  of 
the  freeing  of  the  slaves  and  of  the  preservation  of  the 
Union.     The  sentence  should  read  : 

Lincoln  was  a  great  benefactor  to  his  country ;  he  not  only 
freed  the  slaves  but  preserved  the  Union. 

2.  This  subject  should  be  discussed  in  a  calm,  deliberate 
manner,  instead  of  our  treating  it  so  hastily. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  change  from  the  passive 
to  the  active  form  of  the  verb.  This  change  directs  the 
attention  of  the  reader  from  the  "  subject  "  as  a  thing  to 
be  discussed  to  the  individuals  who  are  concerned  in  the 
discussion.     The  sentence  should  read, 

Instead  of  being  treated  so  hastily,  this  subject  should  be 
discussed  in  a  eahu  and  delilierate  manner. 

Or,  if  we  wish  to  empluisize  tlie  individuals  who  are 
concerned  in  the  discussion  rather  than  the  subject  to  be 
discussed,  the  sentence  should  read. 

Instead  of  treating  this  subject  so  hastily,  we  should  treat 
it  in  a  calm,  deliberate  manner. 

3.  Let  us  rise  up  against  our  oppressors  ;  we  should  leave 
no  stone  unturned  in  our  effort  to  secure  freedom. 

The  incoherence  is  due  to  the  change  from  the  impera- 
tive to  the  indicative  mode  of  the  verb.  In  the  first 
member  of  the  compound  sentence,  the  imperative  "  let " 
makes  direct  appeal  to  the  will ;  in  the  second  member, 
the  indicative  "  should  leave  "  simply  states  a  propriety 
or  a  duty.     Since  the  purpose  of  the  sentence  is  obviously 


RHETORICAL    ESSENTIALS    OF   THE    SENTENCE     147 

to  arouse  to  action,  the  imperative  mode  should  be  used 
in  both  chouses.     The  sentence  should  read, 

Let  us  rise  up  against  our  oppressors ;  let  us  leave  no  stone 
unturned  in  our  effort  to  secure  freedom. 

4.  As  Marmion  gazes  upon  the  Scottish  camp  with  its  long 
line  of  white  tents,  its  bright  banners,  and  its  multitudes  of 
soldiers  marching  in  from  all  directions,  his  heart  may  well 
have  been  filled  with  the  true  spirit  of  the  warrior. 

In  this  sentence  tlie  change  in  the  tense  of  the  verbs 
causes  incoherence.  The  past  tense  in  the  second  clause 
incoherently  suggests  that  Marmion's  heart  might  have 
swelled  with  the  spirit  of  the  warrior  before  he  gazed  upon 
the  Scottish  camp.     The  sentence  should  read, 

As  Marmion  gazes  upon  the  Scottish  camp  with  its  long  line 
of  white  tents,  its  bright  banners,  and  its  multitudes  of  soldiers 
marching  in  from  all  directions,  his  heart'  may  well  be  filled 
with  the  true  spirit  of  the  warrior. 

5.  The  series  of  pictures  shows  the  destruction  of  Troy,  the 
flight  of  .4^]neas,  with  little  lulus  and  Anchises,  and  how  their 
vessels  were  finally  shipwrecked. 

In  this  sentence  similar  ideas  are  expressed  in  dissimilar 
forms.  Three  parts  of  the  sentence  tell  what  the  series  of 
pictures  represents:  the  first  scene  is  expressed  by  a  word 
modified  by  a  phrase;  the  second  scene  is  expressed  in 
similar  form;  but  the  tliird  scene  is  expressed  by  means 
of  a  clause.  Since  the  three  parts  express  similar  ideas, 
they  should  be  similar  in  form.     The  sentence  should  read. 

The  series  of  pictures  represents  the  destruction  of  Troy, 
the  flight  of  ^neas,  with  the  little  lulus  and  Anchises,  and 
the  final  shipwreck  of  their  vessels. 

6.  "A  knight,  just  and  true,  and  who  has  a  clear  conscience, 
need  not  fear  such  visions,"  said  Sir  David. 


148  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

This  sentence  illustrates  the  same  cause  of  incoherence. 
Two  parts  of  the  sentence  express  qualities  belonging  to 
the  knight  who  has  no  reason  to  fear  visions  ;  the  first 
element  expressing  qualities  belonging  to  the  knight  is  a 
compound  adjective  modifier,  "  just  and  true  ";  the  second 
element  expressing  a  (quality  belonging  to  the  knight  is 
a  clause,  "who  has  a  clear  conscience."  The  sentence 
should  read, 

"  A  knight  who  is  just  and  true,  and  who  has  a  clear  con- 
science, need  not  fear  such  visions,"  said  Sir  David. 

or, 

"  A  knight  who  is  just,  true,  and  conscientious,  need  not  fear 
such  visions,"  said  Sir  David. 

EXERCISE 

Explain  the  ambiguity  in  the  following  sentences.  Recon- 
struct the  sentences  in  such  a.  ivay  as  to  secure  coherence. 

1.  He  requested  that  all  lost  articles  be  brought  to  the 
office,  and  all  pupils  who  had  lost  these  articles  to  come  to  the 
office  to  inquire  for  them. 

2.  Tito  gave  this  information  in  order  to  betray  Savonarola, 
and  that  he  might  make  himself  popular  with  the  detestable 
Spini. 

3.  A  holy  man  persecuted  and  driven  from  city  to  city,  and 
who  suffered  every  privation  —  such  was  Dante. 

4.  He  recited  their  wrongs,  telling  them  of  the  white  man's 
coming,  his  encroachments  u])on  their  lands,  and  Ikjw  he  liad 
brought  the  wicked  fire-water. 

5.  As  we  look  upon  the  cruelty  of  diild-hibor  and  as  we  think 
of  the  disastrous  effects  Avliich  such  infamy  will  eventually 
have  upon  our  country,  justly  may  our  spirits  have  risen 
against  the  outrage. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     149 

6.  He  visited  the  sick,  the  lame,  the  halt,  the  blind,  and 
whoever  needed  his  help. 

7.  This  automobile  is  warranted  to  run  smoothly,  with  great 
speed,  and  there  is  less  expense  attached  to  its  use. 

8.  Instead  of  worshiping  him  as  he  expected,  he  was  re- 
ceived Avith  taunts  and  jeers. 

9.  We  expected  him  to  have  arrived  in  time  to  conduct  the 
meeting,  but  we  were  disappointed. 

10.  This  training  was  intended  to  strengthen  the  king,  but 
he  gradually  grew  weaker  as  the  result  of  it. 

11.  He  grew  red,  then  pale,  but  his  temper  was  controlled. 

12.  Romola  received  her  first  inspiration  from  Savonarola, 
and  he  continued  to  exert  a  great  influence  over  her  even  when 
she  was  unconscious  of  it. 

13.  I  should  have  enjoyed  having  been  there,  but  it  was  im- 
possible for  me  to  go. 

14.  Then  they  decided  to  leave  their  narrow  boundaries  and 
that  they  would  seek  larger  countries  in  Europe  or  wherever 
their  wanderings  should  lead  them. 


EMPHASIS   IN   THE   SENTENCE 

A  sentence  is  said  to  have  emphasis  when  its  parts  are 
so  arranged  that  their  relative  importance  is  evident. 

One  of  the  results  of  unskillful  arrangement,  that  of 
ambiguity,  has  been  discussed  in  the  study  of  coherence. 
A  further  discussion  of  position  is  necessary  ;  for  unskillful 
arrangement  gives  rise  not  only  to  incoherence  but  also 
to  a  lack  of  emphasis,  or  a  failure  to  give  distinction  or 
weight  to  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  most  important  in 
the  mind  of  the  writer.  The  unskillful  arrangement, 
therefore,  of  unemphatic  words  in  emphatic  positions  at 
the  beginning  or  particularly  at  the  end  of  a  sentence, 
causes  a  lack  of  emphasis. 


150  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Another  hindrance  to  emphasis  is  the  unskillful  use  of 
anticlimax.  By  anticlimax  we  mean  an  arrangement 
wliicli  places  the  most  im})ortant  word,  phrase,  or  clause 
of  a  series  at  the  beginning,  and  the  least  important 
word,  phrase,  or  clause  at  the  end  of  the  series  to  which  it 
belongs. 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  lack  of  emphasis: 

1.  Tlie  author  says  that  Poe  maintained  a  chivalrous  atti- 
tude toward  women,  even  in  his  writing  and  criticisms. 

In  this  sentence  the  clause  expressing  the  most 
important  idea  in  the  sentence,  namely  that  "  Poe  main- 
tained a  chivalrous  attitude  toward  women,"  is  placed  in 
an  unemphatic  position  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence, 
while  the  elements  expressing  relatively  unimportant  ideas 
are  given  undue  prominence  by  being  placed  at  the 
beginning  and  at  the  end,  —  the  two  emphatic  positions 
in  the  sentence.  A  skillful  rearrangement  will  bring  the 
most  important  clause  at  the  end  of  the  sentence,  the 
element  second  in  importance  at  the  beginning,  and  the 
least  important  one  in  the  middle;  thus, 

"Even  in  his  writing  and  criticisms,"  the  author  says, 
"  Poe  always  maintained  a  chivalrous  attitude  toward  women." 

2.  Thus  Constance  suffered  a  most  horrible  death,  iu  com- 
pany with  the  caitiff  monk. 

Placing  the  phrase,  "in  company  with  the  caitiff  monk," 
—  a  phrase  of  comparative  unimportance,  —  deprives  the 
word  "  death,"  which  deserves  the  greatest  prominence, 
of  its  proper  distinction  in  the  sentence.  For  the  sake  of 
emphasis,  the  elements  should  be  rearranged  as  follows: 

Thus  Constance,  in  company  with  the  caitiff  monk,  suffered 
a  most  horrible  death. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     151 

3.  He  wished  to  teach  the  natives,  first  of  all,  to  be  obedi- 
ent, orderly,  and  cleanly. 

4.  To  worship  God  in  spirit  and  in  trnth,  to  uphold  the 
Bible,  and  to  do  away  with  sectarianism  —  these  were  the  chief 
aims  of  the  great  reformer. 

5.  King  Arthur  organized  the  "Round  Table,"  that  he  might 
right  the  wrong,  overthrow  the  wicked,  and  defend  the  weak. 

The  lack  of  emphasis  in  these  sentences  is  due  to  the 
anticlimax  of  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  a  series. 
Rearranging  them  in  order  of  climax,  we  secure  emphasis  ; 
thus, 

He  wished,  first  of  all,  to  teach  the  natives  to  be  cleanly, 
orderly,  and  obedient. 

To  do  away  with  sectarianism,  to  uphold  the  Bible,  and  to 
worship  God  in  spirit  and  in  truth  —  these  were  the  chief  aims 
of  the  great  reformer. 

King  Arthur  organized  the  '■'Round  Table"  that  he  might 
defend  the  weak,  overthrow  the  wicked,  and  right  the  wrong. 

Importance  of  Arrangement.  —  From  the  preceding  dis- 
cussion of  emphasis  as  determined  by  arrangement,  and 
from  the  examples  illustrating  the  principal  causes  of  a  lack 
of  emphasis,  we  see  the  importance  of  position.  We  see 
that  unempliatic  beginnings  and  unemphatic  endings  make 
sentences  weak  and  ineffective.  We  see,  also,  that  the 
failure  to  observe  the  law  of  climax,  in  the  arrangement 
of  the  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  a  series,  results  in  a 
lack  of  emphasis.  In  order,  then,  to  secure  emphasis,  we 
must  (1)  begin  our  sentences  with  emphatic  words ;  (2) 
end  them  with  emphatic  words ;  (3)  arrange  the  words, 
phrases,  and  clauses  of  a  series  in  the  order  of  climax. 

Note.  —  Invertincf  the  natural  order  of  elements  in  the 
sentence,  or  transposing  to  the  position  which  the  subject 
usually  occupies,  those  parts  belonging  to  the  predicate. 


152  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

will  often  effectively  call  attention  to  important  ideas ; 
thus, 

This  lie  quoth,  and  nothing  more. 

To  this  violent  extreme  he  was  driven  by  the  demands  of  the 
mob. 

Other  Hindrances  to  Emphasis.  —  Although  emphasis  is 
usually  diniinislied  by  faulty  arrangement,  there  are  other 
hindrances  to  securing  this  essential  quality  of  a  good  sen- 
tence. Some  of  these  minor  causes  are  illustrated  in  the 
unemphatic  sentences  below : 

1.  This  morning  the  sky  was  black  and  gloomy  and  overcast 
with  clouds. 

2.  The  Romans  were  defeated  in  this  battle,  and  thus  they 
failed  to  gain  the  victory. 

The  lack  of  emphasis  in  these  sentences  is  due  to  tautol- 
ogy; that  is,  to  ineffective  repetition  of  sense.  In  sen- 
tence 1,  for  instance,  the  expression,  "overcast  with 
clouds,"  is  a  weak  repetition  in  sense  of  the  idea  conveyed 
by  "black  and  gloomy."  In  sentence  2,  also,  the  thought 
of  the  first  clause  is  ineffectively  repeated  in  the  second 
clause. 

3.  The  vast  audience  now  arose  to  their  feet  and  began 
cheering  wildly. 

4.  Let  this  thought  be  utterly  banished  from  your  memory. 

5.  After  many  years  spent  in  a  foreign  land,  he  returned 
back  to  his  own  country. 

The  lack  of  emphasis  in  these  sentences  is  due  to  redun- 
dancy ;  that  is,  to  the  employment  of  superfluous  words. 
In  sentence  3,  the  phrase,  "to  their  feet,"  is  absurdly 
superfluous.  In  sentence  4,  the  sense  implied  in  "  utterly" 
is  included  in  the  term  "  banished";  likewise  in  sentence 


RHETORICAL    ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     153 

5,  the  idea  expressed  in  "  again "  is  included  in  the  term 
"return." 

How  to  secure  Emphasis.  —  Since  emphasis  depends 
partly  upon  structure  and  partly  upon  diction,  the  follow- 
ing directions  for  structure  and  the  cautions  against  poor 
diction  will  be  helpful  to  the  writer  in  his  effort  to  secure 
emphasis : 

(1)  Give  important  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  a  com- 
manding position  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end  of  the 
sentence. 

(2)  Place  unimportant  expressions,  such  as  "  I  think," 
"  I  believe,"  "  he  says,"  "  to  my  surprise,"  in  the  middle 
of  the  sentence. 

(3)  Arrange  the  elements  of  a  series  in  order  of  climax. 

(4)  Avoid  tautology  or  weak  repetition  of  thought. 

(5)  Avoid  redundancy  or  superfluity  of  words. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Hoiv  do  you  exjjlain  the  lack  of  emphasis  in  tJie  fol- 
lowing sentences?  Reconstruct  them  in  such  a  way  as  to 
secure  emphasis. 

1.  What  impresses  me  most  is  the  fact  that  he  is  always 
cheerful  and  happy,  though  his  work  is  so  laborious. 

2.  He  says' that  hero-worship  will  continue  as  long  as  the 
world  endures,  since  every  age  has  its  hero. 

3.  We  feel  that  Paganism  was  wholly  justifiable  in  that 
age,  when  we  consider  the  advantages  which  the  people  had. 

4.  Norse  Paganism  is  the  most  interesting  to  us  because 
it  was  the  most  enduring  and  most  sincere,  in  addition  to  the 
fact  that  it  was  the  religion  of  our  forefathers. 

5.  He  was  pedaling  with  all  his  might  against  the  wind. 

6.  Cicero  urged  the  Romans  to  save  their  shrines  and  their 
altars,  their  wives  and  children,  themselves  and  their  fortunes. 


154  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

7.  The  teacher  impressed  this  principle  more  than  any 
other  upon  our  youthful  minds. 

8.  Frank  Jones,  a  brakeman,  was  fatally  injintMl  in  a  rail- 
road accident  which  occurred  this  morning  on  the  Big  Four 
R.R. 

9.  Their  beautiful  home  was  swept  away  by  fire  and  was 
utterly  destroyed  by  the  dreadful  conflagration. 

10.  All  the  sentences  in  the  entire  poem  are  euphonious 
and  pleasing  to  the  ear. 

11.  Without  doubt  the  fire-horse  is  a  most  beautiful  animal, 
with  its  splendid  bearing,  its  well-groomed  coat  of  hair,  and  its 
long,  bushy  tail. 

12.  One  of  the  hopeful  signs  of  the  times  is  the  realization 
by  the  different  cities  that  graft  and  bossism  must  be  abolished 
from  politics,  in  order  to  secure  the  best  government. 

13.  He  hoped  to  establish  a  rejjutation  as  a  lawyer  and  to 
win  his  first  case. 

14.  Mademoiselle's  personality  is  delightful,  as  well  as  her 
voice. 

15.  In  amazement  I  watched  the  apparition  until  it 
vanished  from  my  sight. 

IG.  Secretary  Taft  urged  Congress  to  make  an  appropria- 
tion of  seventeen  million  dollars  to  be  used  in  building  the 
Panama  Canal,  believing  that  a  smaller  sum  would  be 
inadequate. 

17.  Catiline  conspired  to  overthrow  the  E-oman  govern- 
ment, to  burn  Rome,  and  to  slay  the  Roman  senators. 

18.  We  gladly  adopted  this  and  many  other  measures  sug- 
gested by  our  leader. 

19.  Everybody  should  have  some  special  hobby  in  addition 
to  his  regular  work. 

20.  Lincoln  gained  the  loyalty,  esteem,  and  good  will  of  all 
who  knew  him. 

21.  You  may  now  exchange  papers  Avith  each  other. 

22.  I  think  that  Latin  is  more  interesting  than  English. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     155 

23.  No  audible  sound  could  be  heard. 

24.  Rip  was  noted  for  his  laziness  and  lack  of  industry. 

25.  Much  to  our  pleasure  a  short  lesson  in  rhetoric  was 
assigned  by  the  teacher. 

26.  Although  the  tutor  had  made  the  statement  but  once,  he 
refused  to  repeat  it  again. 

27.  No  doubt  you  will  be  surprised  to  hear  from  me. 

28.  A  deep  snow  covered  the  earth,  and  the  whole  world 
was  hidden  from  sight. 

29.  They  were  engaged  in  conversation  with  each  other, 
when  all  at  once  a  vision  suddenly  appeared  to  their  view. 

30.  This  occupation  afforded  him  much  pleasure,  for  the 
time  being  at  least. 

II.  Examine  the  follounng  sentences  for  lack  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  ejyiphasis.  Indicate  other  changes  that  might 
improve  the  senteMces. 

1.  Annual  sale  now  on.  Don't  go  elsewhere  to  be  cheated 
—  come  in  here. 

2.  Old  Mrs.  Brown  is  disabled  by  a  broken  hip,  and  her 
daughter  who  is  visiting  her  will  return  to  her  home  next 
Tuesday  morning. 

3.  One  of  the  workmen  in  a  near-by  factory  was  caught  in 
the  machinery  and  was  frightfully  mangled  on  last  Friday 
morning  at  ten  o'clock. 

4.  Mrs.  J.  W.  Jones  will  give  an  informal  tea  in  honor 
of  Mrs.  Admiral  Sah,  whose  husband  was  conspicuous  in  the 
late  war  between  Russia  and  Japan  —  a  war  which  was  fought 
with  great  courage  on  both  sides,  but  the  Japanese  were 
victorious  in  the  end. 

5.  Lost  —  near  Highgate  Archway,  an  umbrella  belonging 
to  a  gentleman  with  a  broken  rib  and  a  bone  handle. 

6.  We  wrapped  ourselves  in  chenille  curtains  which  were 
kindly  loaned  to  us  by  some  ladies  which  would  not  fade. 

7.  And  then  comes  death  at  last. 


156  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

8.  A  disastrous  conflagration  destroyed  the  greater  part  of 
L.  S.  Bings'  new  store  wliich  broke  out  early  Tuesday  morning 
in  the  basement. 

9.  In  this  department  we  learn  sewing,  cooking,  and  how 
to  keep  house. 

10.  Struggling  violently  to  regain  his  foothold,  the  bank 
gave  away  and  the  boy  fell  into  the  water. 

11.  We  are  now  living  in  rented  quarters  until  we  can 
build  a  new  house  which  is  to  be  designed  by  an  architect  who 
agrees  to  plan  and  superintend  the  construction  of  the  building 
at  four  per  cent  commission. 

12.  After  many  years  of  exploration,  gold  was  finally  dis- 
covered by  the  persevering  miner. 

13.  To  be  disposed  of, —  a  mail  wagon,  the  property  of  a 
gentleman  with  removable  headpiece  as  good  as  new. 

14.  The  auditorium  will  be  completed  by  the  last  of  October 
and  it  will  cost  twenty-five  thousand  dollars. 

15.  The  voyage  was  pleasant,  but  nothing  unusual  happened. 

16.  As  the  soldiers  approached,  running  rapidly,  the  op- 
posing forces  retreated  down  the  hill. 

Note.  —  The  incoherence  in  this  sentence  is  due  to  what  is  some- 
times called  the  "squinting  construction"  —  that  is,  to  tlie  position  of 
a  participial  phrase  between  two  clauses  with  either  of  which  the 
phrase  might  be  taken. 

17.  In  reply  to  your  inquiries  concerning  the  number  of 
credits  required  for  college  entrance,  Ave  believe  that  the  num- 
ber varies  in  different  colleges. 

18.  The  clerk  not  only  asked  for  a  leave  of  absence  but  that 
his  salary  might  be  increased  upon  his  return. 

19.  She  asked  her  if  she  could  be  of  any  service  to  her. 

20.  His  face,  usually  serene  and  placid,  was  full  of  anger  as 
he  spoke. 

21.  All  our  trials  and  cares  are  ended  when  death  comes. 

22.  The  incidents  were  related  in  a  clear  and  forcible  man- 
ner by  the  pupils. 


RHETORICAL   ESSENTIALS   OF   THE   SENTENCE     157 

23.  The  study  of  Greek  and  Latin  sharpens  not  only  the 
intellect  but  also  aids  in  the  study  of  other  languages. 

24.  The  floods  have  destroyed  a  great  deal  of  property,  due 
to  the  recent  rainfalls. 

25.  The  physician  prescribed  a  remedy  for  his  patient  which 
he  was  sure  would  cure  his  dyspepsia. 

26.  The  figurative  language  in  the  poem  excels  those  of  his 
other  poems. 

27.  The  question  of  woman's  suffrage  came  up  for  debate, 
to  which  all  the  boys  were  opposed,  but  all  the  girls  voted  in 
favor  of  it. 

28.  When  the  Palmer,  whom  young  Selby  had  heard  mut- 
tering in  his  room,  met  Marmion,  he  made  no  obeisance  to  him, 
but  treated  him  in  a  manner  so  stately  that  he  seemed  to  be  of 
equal  rank  ;  and  indeed  he  was,  although  he  was  so  changed 
by  travel  in  a  foreign  land  that  even  his  mother  would  scarcely 
have  known  him. 

29.  Mr.  Brewer  is  one  of  the  most  popular  orators  in  the 
state  and  will  speak  here  this  fall. 

30.  A  class  of  six  young  people  who  have  won  medals  will 
be  contestants  in  this  entertainment,  and  the  admission  will  be 
ten  cents. 

31.  Harry  Ainsworth  returned  home  from  a  month's  sojourn 
in  Pontiac,  Michigan,  where  he  went  for  the  benefit  of  his 
health,  and  his  friends  here  will  be  glad  to  know  that  he  is 
much  improved. 

32.  I  saw  two  sailors  carrying  one  of  their  fellows,  who  was 
struggling  desperately  to  free  himself,  toward  the  edge  of  the 
wharf,  followed  by  a  laughing  crowd. 

33.  We  decided  to  wade  in  a  little  stream  which  flowed 
through  the  town  which  was  very  oily. 

34.  The  landlord  showed  the  newcomer  to  his  room,  where 
he  retired  for  the  night. 

35.  .  One  day  last  summer  an  aeronaut  signed  a  contract  to 
make  three  ascensions  with  his  balloon  in  connection  with  a 
county  fair  to  be  held  in  one  of  the  Southern  States. 


158  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

36.  As  the  fair  was  two  clays  off,  he  did  not  let  the  manage- 
ment know  of  the  loss,  thinking  it  would  turn  up  before  long. 

37.  The  fall  instantly  woke  him,  and  he  carried  a  lump  on 
his  head. 

38.  Being  on  the  whole  such  a  beautiful  night,  we  decided 
to  extend  our  trip  five  miles  farther. 

39.  A  brave  fireman  mounted  the  ladder  and  rescued  the 
frightened  child;  but  he  was  none  too  soon,  for  just  as  they 
reached  safety,  the  roof  fell  in  with  a  crash. 

40.  Shrieks  of  terror  were  heard  above  the  din  and  confusion, 
as  the  agonized  inmates  rushed  to  and  fro  in  an  effort  to  escape. 

41.  If  elected,  it  will  be  my  ambition  to  give  the  state  a  sane, 
efficient,  and  honorable  adniinistration. 

42.  The  platform  denounces  the  protective  tariff  and  states 
that  the  Democratic  party  in  Xew  York  does  not  believe  that 
municipal  or  government  ownership  of  railroads  Avould  be  a 
benefit  to  the  country,  and  it  demands  the  passage  of  stricter 
laws  governing  life-insurance  business  and  pledges  itself  to 
hunt  out  and  punish  insurance  officials  who  have  misused 
their  positions. 

43.  We  find  the  imperial  palace  on  the  crest  of  a  hill  in  a 
garden  inclosed  by  a  stone  thatched  wall,  and  after  passing 
between  lines  of  soldiers  we  enter  the  audience  hall,  a  large 
room  that  reminds  us  of  a  church. 

44.  On  the  right  bank  of  the  river  Jordan  a  number  of 
casks  are  arranged  in  rows,  and  into  them  men  were  pumping 
water  from  the  river,  and  as  fast  as  a  cask  is  filled  it  is  closed 
up  and  lifted  on  a  cart,  and  when  the  cart  is  filled  with  casks, 
it  is  driven  to  Jerusalem  where  a  Turkish  gbvernment  official 
affixes  the  seal  of  his  government  and  the  American  consul 
also  places  the  seal  of  the  United  States. 

45.  All  of  us  have  felt  the  blood  gush  more  joyously  through 
our  veins  with  the  first  breath  of  rural  air,  after  a  long  abode 
in  cities. 

46.  Some  tragic  incident  is  shadowed  forth  or  thrust  side- 
long into  the  spectacle,  always. 


RHETORICAL  ESSENTIALS  OF  THE  SENTENCE     159 

47.  It  was  but  a  feeble  and  despairing  kind  of  remonstrance 
against  his  persecution,  at  any  rate. 

48.  This  torment  was  perhaps  the  token  of  a  native  tem- 
perament deeply  susceptible  of  religious  impressions,  but  which 
had  been  wronged,  violated,  and  debased  by  cruel  circumstance. 

49.  Her  expectation  of  a  delightful  summer  was  woefully 
disappointed,  however. 

50.  That  strange  sorrow  did  not  fail  to  impress  its  mys- 
terious seal  upon  her  face,  and  to  make  itself  perceptible  in 
her  manner  and  carriage,  to  sensitive  observers. 

51.  All  was  hushed  and  still,  not  a  sound  was  heard. 

52.  I  am  positively  certain  that  that  man  is  the  guilty  one. 
5.3.    He  recited  their  wrongs,  their  sufferings,  and  their  priva- 
tions, and  how  all  this  was  yet  unavenged. 

54.  The  pleasing  sound  of  the  harp  was  euphonious  to  the 
ear. 

55.  They  promised  to  restore  back  all  the  hostages  that  had 
been  taken. 

56.  The  sky  was  overcast  with  dull,  gray  clouds,  and  the 
heavens  were  glowing  with  their  somber  robes. 

57.  She  had  been  working  busily  when  they  appeared,  and 
by  signs  they  showed  her  that  they  wanted  something  to  eat. 

58.  We  had  intended  to  have  ten  companies,  but  as  we  could 
only  muster  five  men  including  myself,  who  had  to  sit  on  a  box 
which  admirably  answered  to  the  purpose  of  a  horse,  and  he, 
the  governor  and  his  staff,  we  had  to  cut  it  down  to  three. 

59.  We  collected  all  the  firearms  and  when  counted,  dis- 
tributed them. 

60.  After  a  while  we  served  out  rations,  and  during  the  pro- 
cess of  eating  them  we  grew  so  lazy  that  we  did  not  play  war 
any  more  that  day,  but  went  home  "covered  with  wounds  and 
glory,"  as  the  saying  is. 

61.  A  strong  Kansas  wind  was  blowing  in  at  the  window, 
and  grandmother  said  that  it  was  almost  like  the  winds  they 
had  out  there  in  the  early  days. 


160  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

62.  All  danger  was  now  over,  but  it  took  three  buckets  of 
water  to  put  it  out. 

63.  Thoroughly  alarmed,  he  went  to  look  for  his  son ;  but 
he,  too,  returned  without  him. 

64.  I  started  to  go  around  the  cab,  but  in  doing  so  was  con- 
fronted by  an  automobile. 

65.  We  had  a  delightful  ride  in  the  country,  but  in  an  hour 
or  two  the  sky  grew  dark  and  it  began  to  rain. 

66.  In  the  afternoon  the  rain  ceased  and  the  sun  shone  once 
more,  and  after  enjoying  ourselves  for  several  hours  we  had 
another  charming  ride,  but  quite  different  from  the  morning 
ride  because  we  had  all  been  just  soaked,  and  we  enjoyed  our- 
selves talking  over  the  events  of  the  day  as  we  went  along  in 
the  evening  sunshine. 

67.  They  took  the  boat  back  and  as  they  approached  their 
destination,  the  throng  that  is  usually  seen  about  the  gang- 
plank began  to  collect. 

68.  On  examining  the  carriage,  it  was  found  that  the  wheels 
were  badly  damaged  and  that  the  top  was  broken. 

69.  Sitting  on  our  porch  one  bright,  sunny  afternoon,  all  at 
once  it  began  to  rain. 

70.  The  boy  was  unconscious  when  they  picked  him  up,  but 
they  carried  him  to  a  physician  near  by. 

71.  He  had  been  very  busy  all  day  when  he  saw  two  ladies 
approaching,  in  animated  conversation. 

72.  Alas  !  a  child  was  hemmed  in  on  all  sides  by  fire  in  the 
third  story.  As  the  people  were  watching  her  in  horror,  they 
saw  a  young  man  suddenly  grasp  her  by  the  waist  and  climb 
out  of  the  window  on  to  a  long  and  narrow  ledge  which  pro- 
jected from  the  house,  and  which  fortunately  had  been  built 
there  just  the  summer  before. 

73.  There  is  no  telling  how  this  might  have  terminated,  but 
just  then  the  clerk  quietly  informed  the  combatants  that  the 
piece  of  silk  had  already  been  sold. 


CHAPTER  V 

WORDS 

As  subject-matter  and  the  proper  structure  of  sentences 
determine  the  excellence  of  a  paragraph,  so  the  proper 
selection  and  arrangement  of  words  determine  the  excel- 
lence of  the  sentence.  We  have  all  noticed  that  the  lan- 
guage of  some  speakers  and  writers  is  rich  and  attractive, 
while  that  of  others  is  sterile  and  uninteresting.  We  rec- 
ognize and  admire  the  person  who  can  call  to  his  instant 
service  words  that  will  express  everything  that  he  wishes 
to  say.  What  are  the  principles  of  selection  that  lift  talk 
and  writing  above  the  commonplace,  and  hold  the  attention 
of  the  listener  or  reader  ?  In  the  present  chapter  we  shall 
examine  some  of  the  principles  which  govern  a  wise  selec- 
tion of  words.  We  shall  consider  this  matter  from  two 
main  points  of  view:  (1)  correctness;   (2)  effectiveness. 

WORDS  JUDGED  BY  CORRECTNESS 

GOOD  USE 

In  perfecting  ourselves  in  the  use  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, we  need  to  answer  some  perplexing  questions. 
When  we  hear  our  friend  from  a  neighboring  town  say, 

"I  dove  to  the  bottom  of  James  Rivei"," 

we  do  not  altogether  approve  the  peculiar  preterite  (past 
tense)  "  dove." 

M  161 


162  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

When  we  hear  our  English  cousins  say, 

"  This  clock  is  different  to  that," 

the  expression  startles  us;  and  when  we  read  in  Shakspere, 

"  This  is  the  most  imkindest  cut  of  all," 

we  recall  the  rule  of  our  teachers  forbidding  the  use  of 
two  superlatives.  All  these  differences  and  inconsisten- 
cies thrust  before  us  a  difficult  problem.  We  hunt  for  a 
solution.  First  of  all,  we  ask,  What  is  Good  Use  ?  We  re- 
ceive the  reply, 

A  word  is  in  good  use  when  it  is  employed  by  the  ma- 
jority of  the  best  writers  and  speakers. 

We  naturally  ask:  How  can  I  know  whether  a  certain 
word,  "  proven,"  or  "  gotten "  for  instance,  or  a  certain 
phrase,  "  anybody's  else  book,"  is  used  by  the  majority  of 
the  best  writers  and  speakers  ?  We  should  seek  the  an- 
swer in  the  talk  of  educated  persons  or  in  good  books. 
We  shall  also  seek  assistance  from  the  observation  and 
wide  reading  of  the  teacher.  This,  then,  sets  down  a  fairly 
definite  principle  by  whicli  our  selection  may  be  guided. 

But  we  shall  be  more  detiiiitely  guided  in  our  selection, 
by  applying  to  each  word  that  comes  under  our  notice, 
the  following  tests:  Does  it  fulfill  the  requirements  of: 
(1)  reputable  use  ?  (2)  national  use?  (3)  present  use? ^ 
What  now  do  these  terms  mean? 

Reputable  Use. — Many  words  and  phrases  which  have 
gained  currency  among  the  illiterate  and  imperfectly  edu- 
cated are  never  used  b}^  persons  of  education  and  culture. 
Such  expressions  as  sleeper  (sleeping  ear),  well  posted  (well 

1  All  writers  of  rhetorics  who  adopt  this  division  are  indebted  to  Dr. 
George  Campbell,  a  Scottish  philosopher,  who  published  his  Philosophy 
of  Bhetoric  in  1776. 


WORDS  163 

informed),  drummer  (traveling  salesman),  on  tick.,  graft, 
hustle,  in  the  swim,  brainy,  and  skedaddle,  we  should  hesitate 
to  use  in  dignified  conversation;  they  savor  of  inelegance 
and  hence  are  not  in  reputable  use. 

National  Use.  — A  word  or  phrase  may  be  currently  used 
among  the  liberally  educated  folk  of  England,  but  may 
be  so  rarely  heard  in  America  as  to  make  its  use  by  us 
sound  affected  and  strange.  Hustings,  green-grocer,  hatvker, 
barrister,  and  costermonger  are  good  words  to  use  in  England, 
but  poor  words  to  use  in  America.  On  the  other  hand, 
doughiut,  sophomore,  statehouse,  trapjJer,  and  lumberman  are 
peculiar  to  the  United  States,  and  may  be  used  here  with 
propriety. 

Perhaps  the  most  subtle  temptation  is  that  which  leads 
us  to  the  use  of  provincialisms  —  words  peculiar  to  a  cer- 
tain community  and  not  understood  elsewhere.  We  know 
that  nicker  is  provincial  for  neigh  ;  slicker,  for  rubber  coat ; 
gums,  for  overshoes  ;  spider,  for  frying  pan  ;  right,  for  very. 
Yet  some  of  us  continue  to  use  heedlessly  the  provincialisms 
of  our  communities,  never  suspecting  that  we  are  using 
words  only  partially  understood  and  that  we  are  daily 
exposing  ourselves  to  the  criticism  of  persons  of  discrimi- 
nating judgment.  For  this  defect  the  remedy  lies  in  ob- 
serving constantly  the  speech  of  the  educated,  and  studying 
closely  the  language  of  the  best  writers.  Rhetorics  and 
dictionaries  will  help  us  to  know  our  defects,  but  we  shall 
be  obliged  to  exercise  self-restraint  in  using  only  the  words 
of  national  use. 

Present  Use.  —  A  word  may  be  reputable  and  national 
and  still  not  be  in  good  use  now.  That  it  was  current  in 
Shakspere's  day,  does  not  warrant  our  using  it  in  this 
decade.  This  third  kind  of  Good  Use  is  present  use. 
A  living   language  is  never  fixed ;    old  words  are  con- 


164  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

stantly  being  discarded ;  new  ones  are  constantl}'-  being 
added  ;  sometimes,  too,  a  word  long  rejected  is  mysteriously 
revived  and  receives  again  the  stamp  of  current  approval. 
A  young  writer  should  be  slow  to  use  a  word  which  has 
gone  out  of  use,  which  is  going  out,  or  one  which  has  not 
been  thoroughly  established.  Here  many  specific  questions 
will  arise.  For  instance,  is  the  word  gotten  in  present  use 
or  is  it  growing  obsolete?  Is  the  word  electrocute  to  be 
accepted  ?  As  long  as  lie  remains  in  doubt  in  regard  to 
these  words  and  scores  of  others,  the  young  writer  should 
refuse  to  use  them.  Discretion  here  as  elsewhere  is  the 
better  part  of  valor.  Below  are  printed  several  words 
which  are  to  be  questioned. 

Obsolete  or  obsolescent  Recent  and  unaccepted 

stond  (impediment)  treck  (to  marcli) 

albeit  graft 

besom  (a  broom)  electrocide 

receipt  (a  receptacle)  electrocute 

wight  (person)  cablegram 

whilom  burglarize 

ycleped  photo 

bediglit  phone 

erstwhile  wire  (as  a  verb) 

ilk  electric  (as  a  noun) 

eek  motorneer 

Violations  of  Good  Use. — The  pupil  will  find  below  a 
list  of  the  common  examples  of  the  violations  of  good  use. 
He  is  urged  to  note  carefully  each  mistake,  and  to  correct 
those  which  he  has  been  in  the  habit  of  making.  He  will 
observe  in  this  list  certain  expressions  which  are  not  in- 
correct, but  which  by  some  rhetoricians  are  classed  as 
objectionable   or   doubtful.      Ungrammatical    forms,  like 


WORDS  165 

/  seen,  and  current  slang  words,  such  as  bum  and  dandy, 
have  not  been  included  in  the  list,  because  they  are  un- 
worthy of  notice  in  such  a  book  as  this.  The  question 
which  the  pupil  should  ask  is:  Are  these  words  or  phrases 
in  current  and  general  use  among  the  best  writers  and 
speakers  ?  In  grouping  these  violations  lie  will  arrive  at 
some  such  headings  as  these: 

The  ordinary  classification  of  the  violations  of  good  use  is: 
(1)  Barbarisms  —  words  used  in  a  sense  not  English, 
e.g.  obsolete  words,  new  and  unestablished  words,  new 
formations  from  good  words;  (2)  Improprieties  —  words 
right  in  themselves,  but  confused  in  meanings  with  other 
words;  as,  effect  for  affect;  except  for  accept;  and  (3) 
Solecisms — words  used  in  ungrammatical  constructions; 
as,  between  you  and  I  for  between  you  and  me. 

Accept  of.    Of'xs  unnecessary.     (IIow  distinguished  from  except  f) 

Acoustics.    Plural  in  form;  singular  in  meaning. 

Affect.  A  verb.  Effect  is  a  verb  or  noun.  Affect  is  often  incor- 
rectly used  for  the  noun  effect. 

Aggravate.  Tu  increase,  to  intensify;  not,  as  used  colloquially,  to 
irritate  or  exasperate. 

Ain't.   A  solecism  and  a  vulgarism. 

A II  of.  O/is  unnecessary.  Do  not  say,  "  I  ate  all  of  it,"  "  I  saw  all 
of  them,"  but  "I  ate  it  all,"  "I  saw  them  all." 

Allow.     Means  to  permit.    It  is  often  vulgarly  used  for  say  or  think. 

Among.  Used  when  speaking  of  more  than  two.  Not,  "They  dis- 
cussed it  among  each  other,"  but  "among  themselves." 

And.  Subjects  connected  hj  and  generally  require  a  plural  verb ; 
as,  "John  and  Charles  are  here;"  but  if  the  t^vo  subjects  coalesce  into 
one  idea,  the  verb  may  be  singular ;  as,  "  There  was  racing  and  chasing 
on  Cannobie  Lee." 

Anyplace.    Provincial  for  anywhere. 

Anyways — anywheres.   Vulgarisms  for  anyway,  anywhere. 


166  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Anxious.  Carries  with  it  the  idea  of  trouble  or  distress.  It  is  often 
incorrectly  used  for  eaf/er.  You  are  not  anxious  for  a  pleasure,  but 
eager  for  it. 

Approach.  To  make  advances.  Not,  as  incorrectly  used,  to  petition 
or  address. 

Aren't.  Contraction  for  ore  ntit.  Used  correctly  only  when  the  sub- 
ject follows;  as,  "Aren't  you?"      Write  "You're  not,"  "We're  not." 

As.  The  use  of  as  for  that  is  obsolete.  Do  not  say,  "  I  do  not  know 
as  I  can  go;"  say,  "I  do  not  know  that  I  can  go." 

At.  "Where  are  you  at?"  is  a  vulgarism;  say  simply,  "Where  are 
you?"     At  is  implied  in  where. 

Awful  —  awfully.  Improprieties  and  vulgarisms  for  very.  Should 
be  used  only  where  awe  is  implied. 

Back  a  letter.    A  vulgarism ;  say  address. 

Back  of.    Provincial  for  behind. 

Back  out.   Inelegantly  used  for  retreat. 

Bad  —  badly.  The  expression,  "I  feel  bad,"  is  correct;  forbad  is 
an  adjective  used  to  denote  condition;  it  is  not  an  adverb  denoting 
manner  of  feeling.     (See  look  bail.) 

Badly.  Often  incorrectly  used  for  very  much,  greatly.  Y''ou  do  not 
want  a  thing  badly;  you  want  it  very  much. 

Balance.  Do  not  say,  "  The  balance  of  the  time,"  "  The  balance  of 
the  corn  ;  "  remainder  or  rest  is  correct. 

Be  back.  Though  used  by  Shakspere,  and  though  freely  used  as  a 
colloquialism,  this  expression  is  condemned  by  many  authorities,  who 
insist  that  return  is  better. 

Beginning.  In  the  expression,  "A  new  beginning,"  the  neio  is 
redundant. 

Beside  — besides.  The  first  means  by  the  side  of;  the  second  in  ad- 
dition to. 

Between.  Properly  used  with  two;  among -vixth.  more  than  two;  as, 
"Between  the  two  brothers,  there  is  no  difference;  among  the  four 
cousins,  the  quarreling  is  constant." 

Blame.  Instead  of  saying,  "  He  blamed  it  on  me,"  say  simply,  "  He 
blamed  me." 

Both.    In  such  negative  expressions  as,  "Both  boys  were  not  pro- 


WORDS  167 

moted,"  we  cannot  determine  the  intended  meaning.  Say  either, 
"  Neither  of  the  boys  was  promoted,"  or  "  Only  one  of  the  boys  was 
promoted,"  or  "  Both  boys  failed  to  be  promoted." 

Both  alike.  Both  cannot  correctly  be  used  with  the  adjective  alike. 
We  may  say,  "  Both  sons  are  like  their  father,"  but  we  cannot  say, 
"  They  are  both  alike"  (that  is,  like  each  other).  We  may  say,  '■'Both 
were  alike  good"  (that  is,  equally  good),  alike  in  this  case  being  used 
adverbially.  —  "Standard  Dictionary." 

Boiighten.    Vulgarly  used  for  bought. 

Bound.  In  the  sentence,  "I  am  bound  to  go,"  this  word  is  un- 
authorized by  good  use.     Say  resolved  or  determined. 

Brainy.  An  unwarranted  expression  often  applied  to  a  man  with  a 
vigorous,  active  mind. 

Bursted.  A  barbarism.  The  principal  parts  of  burst  are  hurst, 
burst,  burst. 

But.  This  word  is  properly  an  adversative  and  should  not  be  used 
to  express  a  mere  change  in  the  direction  of  thought.  In  the  sentence, 
"  But  above  all  let  us  not  abandon  our  cause,"  no  contrast  is  suggested, 
and  hence  the  expression  is  faulty.  The  word  is  correctly  used  in  "  I 
argued  the  case  strongly,  but  he  remained  unconvinced."  In  the 
sentence,  "There  is  no  one  these  but  he  and  I,"  the  he  and  /  should 
be  changed  to  him  and  me,  because  but  is  here  a  preposition  and  takes 
him  and  me  as  its  objects. 

But  that.  Do  not  say,  "I  do  not  doubt  but  that  he  will  come," 
omit  the  but.  Do  not  say,  "I  do  not  know  but  what  he  will  buy  my 
horse  ;  "  change  tvhat  to  that  and  omit  but. 

Calculate.     Vulgar  for  think  or  suppose. 

Cannot  help  but.     For  cannot  but  help  or  cannot  help. 

CanH  hardly.     For  can  hardly.     The  negative  is  implied  in  hardly. 

Clever.  Quick-witted,  skillful,  talented ;  provincially  used  for 
pleasant,    obliging,    kind. 

Complected.     A  vulgarism  for  complexioned. 

Couple.  Two  related  or  associated  things  of  a  kind.  Vulgarly  used 
for  any  two  things. 

Cute.     A  barbarism  for  cunning. 

Demean.  To  behave ;  not,  as  popularly  misused,  to  debase  or 
degrade. 


168  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Depot.  A  building  used  for  storing  goods;  not,  as  incorrectly 
used,  a  railway  station. 

Different  to  —  different  than.     Incorrect.     \^se  different  from. 

Directly.  In  the  sentence,  "  Directly  I  got  there,  we  started  on 
a  fishing  trip,"  substitute  for  "  Directly "  Innnediately  after  or  As 
soon  as. 

Don't.  A  contraction  for  do  not.  Therefore  it  is  ungrammatical  to 
say,  "He  don't,"  "It  don't."    "I  don't"  for  "I  do  not"  is  correct. 

Douht  but.  Often  incorrectly  used  for  doubt  that.  Not,  "There 
is  no  doubt  but  she  will  come,"  but,  "  There  is  no  doubt  that  she 
will  come." 

Each.  Requires  a  singular  verb  and  pronoun ;  as,  "  Each  of  the 
houses  has  its  own  heating  apparatus;"  not,  "Each  of  the  houses  has 
their  own  heating  apparatus." 

Effect.     See  affect. 

Electrocute.  Though  this  is  irregularly  formed,  the  word  supplies 
a  need  and  will  probably  make  its  way. 

Elegant.  An  overworked  word  to  express  general  approval.  It  is 
not  proper  to  speak  of  an  elegant  time ;  it  is  proper  to  speak  of  an 
elegant  piece  of  furniture. 

Emigrate  —  immigrate.  The  first  implies migi'ating /row  a  country; 
the  second  describes  those  who  are  movin'^^tn^p  a  country.  The 
United  States  has  many  immigrants,  but  lew  j^mi grants. 

Enthuse.     A  formation  not  sanctioned  by  good  use. 

Equally  as  great  —  equally  as  rrell.     Omit  the  as. 

Except.     Often  vulgarly  used  for  accept. 

Expect.  IMust  not  be  used  for  think,  believe,  or  suppose.  We  expect 
a  certain  event  to  happen,  or  we  expect  our  friend  to  dinner. 

Farther — further.  The  first  applies  to  distance;  the  second,  to 
quantity  or  degree.  We  go /fl?vAer  on  our  walking  journey ;  we  investi- 
gate a  subject  further. 

Fetch.  A  good  word.  It  means  go  and  bring.  It  is  used  in  England 
more  frequently  than  in  America. 

Fine.  Like  elegant,  it  is  very  much  overworked.  Consult  the 
dictionary. 

Firstly.     Has  passed  out  of  use  ;  sz.yfr.tt. 


WORDS  169 

First-rale.     An  adjective,  not  an  adverb. 

Fix.  Young  writers  will  do  well  to  limit  this  word  to  its  unques- 
tioned meaning  ot  fasten.     Do  not  nse  in  sense  of  to  mend. 

Fly,  flee,  floiv.  Cotisnlt  the  dictionary  and  master  the  principal 
parts. 

Folks.  For  a  long  time  regarded  as  provincial,  but  seems  to  be 
making  its  way. 

For.     Redundant  in  the  expression,  "More  than  you  think  for." 

Foncard — forioards.     These  words  are  used  interchangeably. 

From  hence — from  thence — from  whence.     The  from  is  redundant. 

Gent.     An  unauthorized  abbreviation. 

Gentleman.     Often  used  where  man  would  be  better. 

Get  to  go — get  to  study.  Not  an  idiom  but  a  provincialism.  Instead 
of  saying,  "I  did  not  get  to  go,"  say,  "I  could  not  go"  or  "I  didn't 
get  a  chance  to  go." 

Good  deal  —  great  deal.     Are  in  good  idiomatic  use. 

Got.  When  used  with  have  to  e^nphasize  the  process  of  the  getting 
is  correct.  "  I  have  finally  .««<  my  Latin  lesson."  When  used  merely 
for  possession  it  is  superfluous.  Say  simply,  "  That  house  has  a  slate 
roof."  » 

Gotten.  Condenmed  by  some  purists,  but  authorized  by  some 
excellent  writers.     Watch  its  use ;  it  may  become  obsolete. 

Graduated.  In  the  expression,  "  He  graduated  in  1906,"  is  illogi- 
cally  used,  but  usage  is  making  it  correct. 

Graft  —  grafters.  Suggest  dishonest  methods  of  obtaining  money. 
They  have  not  yet  made  their  way  into  good  use ;  they  will  likely 
be  admitted  in  time. 

Gumption.     A  colloquialism. 

Had  better  —  had  rather.  Idioms  sanctioned  by  centuries  of  good 
use. 

Had  have.     In  the  phrase,  "  Had  I  have  gone,"  have  is  superfluous. 
Healthful  —  healthy.     The  first  means  ivholesome  or  salubrious ;  the 
second  means  sound  or  well. 

Home.  Used  as  an  adverb,  jnay  be  used  with  verbs  of  motion  ;  as, 
"  He  ran  home,"  but  we  must  say,  "He  is  at  home,"  not  "  He  is  home." 


170  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

How.  Do  not  use  synonymously  with  "  What  did  you  say?"  in 
asking  some  oue  to  repeat  a  sentence. 

Hung.  Objectionable  in  the  phrase,  "  lie  was  hung"  (put  to  death 
on  the  gallows).     We  should  say,  "  He  was  hanged." 

If.  The  best  usage  objects  to  ?yfor  ivhether  in  such  a  sentence  as, 
"  I  do  not  know  if  he  is  here." 

Illusion  —  allusion.     Consult  the  dictionary. 

Illy.     Not  in  good  usage.     "  He  w  as  treated  ill "  is  correct. 

In  —  into.  Use  in  with  verbs  of  rest ;  as,  "  He  is  now  in  the  house." 
Use  into  with  verbs  of  motion  ;  as,  "  He  has  just  gone  into  the  house." 

Indention.     A  printer's  term.     Indentation  has  a  broader  use. 

In  our  midst.  Seems  now  to  be  as  well  established  as  the  older 
phrase.  In  the  midst  of  them. 

In  so  far  as.     Omit  the  in. 

Kind  of —  sort  of.  AVhen  used  loosely  to  modify  adjectives,  are 
provincial.  Do  not  say,  "I  am  kind  of  lonesome."  We  should  also 
be  careful  to  say,  "  This  kind  of  apples"  or  "  Tliese  kinds  of  apples." 
A  third  error  is  also  common  ;  we  must  not  say,  "  This  kind  of  a 
house  "  but  "  This  kind  of  house." 

Kinsman.  Implies  blood  relationship;  relatires  and  relations  imply, 
in  addition,  the  associates  which  marriage  or  other  bonds  make. 
Our  brother  is  a  kinsman,  our  brother-in-law  is  a  relative.  See 
Relatives. 

Last  —  latest.  Xot  synonymous.  An  artist's  latest  picture  may  not 
be  his  last. 

Later  on.     The  on  is  redundant. 

Leave.  In  the  sentence,  "  Leave  me  sweep  the  kitchen,"  leave  is 
incorrectly  used  for  let. 

Less  — fewer.  Less  is  applied  to  quantity ;  fewer,  to  numbers.  We 
may  ask  ovir  grocer  for  less  sugar  and  iov  fewer  potatoes. 

Liable.  Implies  the  possibility  of  something  undesirable  ;  as, "  We 
are  linhle  to  have  a  wreck ; "  "  We  are  likely  to  get  a  vacation  to- 
morrow." 

Like  —  as.  Like  is  a  prepo.sitiou  and  must  not  be  used  in  a  con- 
junctive sense.  (Jarrick  was  correct  in  his  grammar,  at  least,  when 
he  wrote  of  Goldsmith, 


WORDS  171 

"  Here  lies  poet  Goldsmith,  for  shortness  called  Noll, 
Who  wrote  like  au  augel,  but  talked  like  poor  poll." 

In  the  sentence,  "Play  like  you  were  a  conductor,"  like  should  be 
changed  to  as  if.  In  the  sentence,  "  He  acts  like  you  do,"  like  should 
be  changed  to  as. 

Limited.  Means  restricted.  It  is  not  to  be  loosely  used  for  small 
or  scant.  We  may  say,  "  His  time  was  limited  to  eight  minutes,"  but 
we  should  not  say,  "The  audience  was  limited"  or  "The  supply  on 
hand  was  very  limited." 

Loan.     Should  not  be  used  as  a  verb ;  lend  is  better. 

Locate.     Not  to  be  used  as  a  synonym  for  settle. 

Look  badly.  The  correct  form  is,  "  He  looks  had."  Bad  is  here  an 
adjective  used  to  denote  condition  —  not  the  manner  of  looking. 

Lot  —  lots.  Both  words  are  vulgarly  used  in  the  sentence,  "He 
has  a  lot  of  money  and  lots  of  friends." 

Mad.     Means  insane,  not  angry  or  vexed. 

Hay  —  can.  May  expresses  contingency,  wish,  permission;  can 
implies  physical  or  mental  ability. 

Most.  Should  not  be  confused  with  almost.  Do  not  say,  "Most  all 
my  friends  were  there."  Nor  should  it  be  used  in  the  expression 
"  most  generally." 

Much  of  truth.     Omit  the  of. 

Neglect — negligence.  The  first  names  the  specific  act;  the  second, 
the  habit. 

Neither.  In  the  sentence,  "  Neither  of  the  men  was  present,"  good 
usage  demands  the  singular  verb. 

A^ice.  Means  exact,  delicate,  discriminating.  Its  use  in  such  expres- 
sions as  "  nice  day,"  "  nice  girl,"  "  nice  dinner,  "  is  colloquial. 

Nicker.     Provincial  for  neigh. 

None.  Usage  is  pretty  evenly  divided  between  "  None  of  the 
books  was  sent"  and  "None  of  the  books  ivere  sent."  The  first  is 
strictly  grammatical ;  the  second  is  idiomatic. 

Nor,  or.  To  be  discriminated  when  used  after  no  or  not.  "  He 
has  no  money  or  credit;"  here  "credit"  is  only  an  equivalent  of 
money  and  serves  merely  to  amplify  expression.     "  He  has  no  money 


172  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

nor  credit"  presents  "credit"  as  an  important  alternative,  an  addi- 
tional resource.  —  "  Standard  Dictionary." 

No  use.     Instead  of  saying,  "  It  was  no  use,"  say,  "  It  was  of  no  use." 

O  —  oJi.  Have  by  many  rhetoricians  been  distinguished;  O  is 
used  as  the  sign  of  the  vocative  and  ok  as  an  interjection.  More 
recent  usage,  however,  allows  the  O  as  an  interjection,  esjiecially  in 
poetry. 

Observation  —  observance.  The  former  implies  watchfulness,  or  a 
comment  on  something  watched;  the  latter  implies  a  ceremonial  act 
or  the  adherence  to  rule;  as,  "We  were  interested  in  the  observation 
of  the  planet,"  "  At  Rome  we  saw  the  observance  of  Easter,"  "  lie  was 
strict  in  the  observance  of  the  rule." 

Off.     Do  not  say,  "  I  want  off ; "  say,  "  I  want  to  get  off." 

Official  —  officious.  The  first  describes  an  act  of  an  officer;  the 
second  is  applied  to  a  person  who  f(jrces  his  services  upon  one. 

Off  of.  Do  not  say,  "  He  jumps  off  of  the  box ;  "  of  is  redundant. 
The  of  is  redundant  in  the  expression,  "  T  do  not  remember  of  doing 
that." 

One.  ]\Iany  authorities  insist  that  the  proper  antecedent  of  one 
is  one ;  but  to  say, "  If  any  one  wishes  to  go,  let  one  raise  one's  hand," 
sounds  pedantic.  Perhaps  the  best  device  is  always  to  substitute  a 
noun  ;  as,  "If  any  pujnl  wishes  to  go,  let  him  raise  his  hand." 

Only.     For  distinction  between  onhj  and  alone  see  dictionary. 

Onto.  Not  fully  established.  We  can  generally  use  upon  or  per- 
haps on  to. 

Or.  AVhen  or  connects  two  singular  nouns  used  as  subject,  employ 
a  singular  verb ;  it  is  perhaps  better  to  avoid  the  use  of  or  when  the 
subjects  connected  are  of  different  numbers.  "  Either  May  or  the 
girls  have  gone"  is  awkward. 

Out.     Say,  "  lie  ran  out  of  the  barn;"  not,  "  He  ran  out  the  barn." 

Outclassed.  In  such  a  sentence  as,  " Our  team  was  outclassed" 
this  is  too  recent  to  be  accepted. 

Out  doors.  Colloquial  wlien  used  as  a  noun  ;  as,  "  It  is  as  big  as  all 
out  doors."  It  may  be  used  synonymously  with  out  of  doors ;  as,  "Ha 
ran  out  doors." 

Overly.     Colloquial. 


WORDS  173 

Pants.     Used  for  trousers  is  a  vulgarism. 

Parti/.     When  used  to  refer  to  a  i^erson  is  an  impropriety  unless 
used  as  a  legal  term.     Consult  the  dictionary. 

Per.     A  Latin  preposition  not  sanctioned  in  English.     Instead  of 
per  week,  per  jiound,  say  a  week,  a  poimd. 

Persecute — prosecute.    Persecute  is  a,  strong  word  ior  harass.    Prose- 
cute is  a  legal  term. 

Phone.     Not  used  in  good  writing. 

Photo.     An  unauthorized  abbreviation. 

Plenty.     Incorrect  in  the  sentence,  "Peaches  are  plenty  this  year; 
substitute  plentiful.     Plenty  is  a  noun ;  plentiful,  an  adjective. 

Posted.     Colloquial  for  ivell  informed. 

Prescribe  — proscribe.     See  the  dictionary. 

Preventative.     A  vulgarism  ;  preventive  is  the  correct  form. 

Previous  to.     An  unauthorized  expression.     Use  before. 

Proved.     Much  better  than  proven. 

Providing — providing  that.     Should  not  be  confused  with  provided, 
and  provided  that.     "  Provided  you  are  willing,  we  shall  go,"  is  correct. 

Quite.     It  is  a  safe  rule  for  the  young  student  to  use  quite  only 
when  entirely  may  be  substituted. 

Raise  —  rear.     Horses  and  corn  are  raised;  children  are  reared. 

Rarely  ever.     The  ever  is  superfluous. 

Real.     An  adjective  cannot  modify  another  adjective ;    hence  we 
cannot  say,  "  It  is  real  good." 

Recipe  —  receipt.     The  old  distinction  is  good.    The  first  is  a  culi- 
nary term ;  the  second,  a  commercial  term. 

Referee.     Like  umpire  this  word  is  not  properly  used  as  a  verb. 

Remember  of.     See  of. 

Relative  —  relation.     Relatives  is  preferable  to  relations.     See  Kins- 
man. 

Repeat.     In  the  sentence,  "  Please  repeat  the  question  again,"  the 
again  is  redundant  unless  the  question  is  to  be  given  a  third  time. 

Retire.     A  pretentious  and  affected  substitute  for  go  to  bed. 

Reverend  —  reverent.     The  first  means  entitled  to  veneration;  the 
second  means  paying  veneration.     The  similarity  in  form  should  not 


174  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

confuse  the  student.     '*  The  reverend  old  gentleman  was  treated  with 
great  respect,"  "  His  attitude  was  prayerful  and  recerent." 

Rig.  As  a  noun,  meaning  horse  and  carriage,  is  colloquial  and 
provincial.  Rig,  used  as  a  verb,  to  dress  up  in  a  fanciful  manner,  is 
colloquial. 

Says.  Often  employed  by  illiterate  people  where  the  past  form 
said  should  be  used. 

Seldom  or  ever.     Seldom  is  sufficient. 

Sewage  —  setverage.  Sewage  (the  waste)  is  carried  away  in  the 
sewerage  (the  system  of  sewers.) 

Sit  —  set.     See  page  485. 

So.  Is  a  greatly  overworked  word.  Do  not  use  it  as  an  intensive 
word ;  "  He  is  so  good,"  "  I  am  so  glad  you  have  come."  Compare 
the  equally  objectionable  use  of  such  a  as  an  intensive ;  "  This  is  such 
a  peculiar  story." 

Some  —  somewhat.  It  is  wrong  to  say,  "She  is  some  better;"  sub- 
stitute somewhat. 

Somewheres.     A  barbarism. 

Stop.  Should  not  be  confused  with  stay.  Stop  means  a  momentary 
break  in  action  ;  stay  implies  duration  of  time.  The  following  sentence 
makes  the  correct  distinction,  "  On  my  way  home,  I  shall  slop  at  New 
York,  where  I  shall  stay  ten  days  or  more."  To  .''top  at  a  hotel  is  a 
colloquialism  that  seems  destined  to  become  good  English. 

Subsequent  to.     After  is  in  better  taste. 

Such  a.     Do  not  say,  "  He  is  such  a  fine  student."     See  so. 

Than  whom.  An  awkward  form  that  is  sup]H)rted  by  good  usage. 
"  Dr.  Mason,  than  whom  there  is  no  better  surgeon  in  the  state,  has 
charge  of  the  case." 

Those  kind  —  those  sort.     A  solecism.     Substitute  that. 

Through.  The  sentence,  "  T  am  through  my  dinner,"  is  inelegant. 
Say  ratlier,  "  I  have  finished  my  dinner." 

To.     Omit  in  the  sentence,  "  Where  has  he  gone  to?" 

Toward  —  foivards.     Use  either  form. 

Transpire.  Not  used  by  careful  writers  in  the  sense  of  to  happen. 
It  properly  means  to  breathe  through  ;  hence,  to  become  knoirn. 


WORDS  175 

Try  and.  In  the  sentence,  "  Try  and  come  to-morrow,"  is  objec- 
tionable ;  say,  "  Try  to  come  to-morrow." 

Tv)o  first  —  two  last.     Good  use  sanctions /?rs<  two  and  last  two. 

Unique.  Properly  means  singular;  one  only  existing ;  as,  "  A  unique 
manuscript."    Do  not  say  a  thing  is  very  unique. 

Verbal  (coming  from  iierhum,  meaning  word).  Often  incorrectly 
used  for  oi-al.  Verbal  applies  to  both  spoken  and  written  words ; 
oral  to  spoken  words  only. 

Very.  Not  properly  used  as  a  modifier  of  the  past  participle.  Do 
not  say,  "  I  was  very  pleased  ;  "  say,  "  I  was  very  much  pleased."  Very 
may  modify  an  adjective  but  young  writers  have  a  tendency  to  use  it 
too  frequently.     Use  it  rarely. 

Ways.  We  should  say,  "  It  is  a  long  ivay  from  here  ;  "  not,  "  It  is 
a  long  ways  from  here." 

Without.  Do  not  confuse  with  unless.  "  I  shall  not  go  without  he 
comes,"  was  formerly  considered  correct,  but  good  usage  now  insists 
upon  unless.     Without  is  a  preposition  ;  unless,  a  conjunction. 

Witness.  Formal  for  see.  We  can  nntness  a  murder,  a  football- 
game,  a  theft,  etc.,  but  we  see  a  river,  a  house,  a  star,  or  a  fire. 

How  Good  Use  is  Determined. — Those  who  attempt  an 
arbitrary  decision  on  special  questions  of  good  usage  are 
constantly  on  the  verge  of  danger.  In  certain  cases  their 
judgment  may  have  failed  to  register  what  the  majority 
of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  are  now  really  using. 
Since  our  language  is  full  of  life,  it  grows  and  changes 
from  year  to  year.  A  word  in  good  use  to-day  may  be 
forgotten  ten  or  twenty  years  hence,  when  the  object  or 
movement  which  it  names  has  passed  away.  We  see  this 
about  us  ever}^  day  as  new  inventions  supersede  old  ones, 
and  new  methods  of  thought  or  new  institutions  replace 
the  old.  The  radicals  and  the  conservatives  are  always  at 
war,  and  the  radical  writers  and  speakers,  in  searching  for 
the  novel,  the  picturesque,  and  the  bold,  may  often  push 
doubtful  words  and  phrases  into  the  safe  refuge  of  author- 


176  COMPOSITIOxX   AND   RHETORIC 

ity.  In  these  maneuvers,  moreover,  an  established  word 
may  sometimes  be  ousted.  And  as  long  as  the  English 
language  continues  to  be  a  vital  instrument  for  the  record 
and  transmission  of  thought,  the  processes  of  growth  and 
decay  will  continue.  The  young  writer  will  accordingly 
regard  the  foregoing  as  a  list  of  suggested  warnings,  and 
not  as  final  decisions.  He  will  remember  that  the  only 
court  of  appeal  is  Good  Use,  —  reputable,  national,  and 
present, — and  that  decisions  even  here  may  be  misin- 
terpreted. The  student's  practical  recourse  is  untiring 
watchfulness  of  those  writers  and  speakers  whose  culture 
commands  respect. 

One  further  warning  is  necessary.  Let  no  student  think 
that  if  he  avoids  all  such  errors  as  we  have  indicated,  his 
diction  is  necessarily  good.  The  essentials  of  effective 
writing  or  speaking  are  clearness,  vigor,  and  correctness, 
—  not  one  of  these  singly,  but  all  of  them  in  combination. 
As  Professor  Palmer  has  told  us,  our  work  should  not 
be  distinguished  so  much  by  freedom  from  fault  as  by 
abundance  of  virtues.  Tlie  young  writer  will  remember 
that  the  specific  mistakes  we  have  here  recorded,  he  must 
avoid ;  he  will  supplement  this  advice  with  his  determi- 
nation to  make  every  sentence  say  exactly  what  he  wishes 
it  to  say. 

WORDS   JUDGED   BY  EFFECTIVENESS 

We  have  learned  that  many  words  seeking  admission 
into  the  lanofuasfe,  or  struo'srlingf  to  remain  in  the  lansruaije, 
must  make  their  final  appeal  to  the  court  of  Good  Use. 
If  certain  words  are  used  by  a  majority  of  the  best  writers 
and  speakers,  they  may  be  used  by  us.  Though  this  is 
our  accorded  privilege,  there  frequently  arises  the  ques- 


WORDS  177 

tion :  Is  this  the  best  word  to  use  ?  We  shall  be  helped 
in  our  answer  by  examining  words  from  the  following 
points  of  view :  (1)  general  and  specific  words ;  (2)  eu- 
phonious and  cacophonous  words ;  (3)  Anglo-Saxon  and 
Latin  words. 

General  and  Specific  Words. — Most  of  us  like  to  be  lazy. 
We  like  to  lie  abed  late  in  the  morning,  or  to  sit  in  a 
Morris  chair  rather  than  to  run  on  an  errand  to  the 
grocery  store.  In  describing  a  building  in  which  a  certain 
family  lives,  we  prefer  to  say,  "They  live  in  a  house." 
If  we  continuously  lie  abed  or  sit  in  Morris  chairs,  we 
soon  grow  weak  and  finally  lose  control  of  ourselves; 
likewise,  if  we  content  ourselves  in  our  speech  with  gen- 
eral terms  such  as  liouse  for  every  place  of  habitation,  our 
language  soon  becomes  enfeebled  and  is  no  longer  efficient 
for  our  needs. 

Suppose  we  examine  in  detail  this  generic  term  house. 
One  of  the  definitions  in  the  Standard  Dictionary  is :  — 
A  place  of  abode  or  shelter.  That  is  a  good  definition,  even 
though  it  does  not  tell  much.     When  we  say,  however, 

"John  Everton  lives  in  a  house  at  the  foot  of  Sharron 
Hill," 

our  sentence  gives  us  no  clear  idea  of  the  house  John 
lives  in.  By  substituting  for  the  general  word  house  any 
one  of  the  specific  words,  shack,  dug-out,  hovel,  lodge,  par- 
sonage, manse,  cottage,  mansion,  castle,  or  palace,  we  should 
convey  to  our  reader,  or  to  our  listener,  a  much  more  definite 
notion  of  John's  surroundings,  and  even  of  John  himself. 
The  use  of  the  word  shack,  hut,  hovel,  or  dug-out,  for  in- 
stance, would  indicate  that  John's  house  is  a  wretched  sort 
of  shelter,  and  that  John  himself  is  a  poor,  ill-dressed  fel- 
low, unattractive  and  plebeian.     On  the  other  hand,  the 


178  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

word  mansion^  castle^  or  palace,  would  suggest  that  John's 
house  is  a  magnificent  structure,  and  that  Jolni  himself  is 
an  aristocratic  gentleman  of  wealth  and  position.  Again, 
the  use  of  the  word  lodge,  cottage,  manse,  ov  parsonage,  would 
present  John  as  a  servant,  a  man  of  humble  occii})ation,  or 
a  clergyman,  living  in  an  unpretentious  home,  while  bun- 
galow would  present  him  as  a  man  of  leisure,  living  in 
Bohemian  fashion,  in  a  small,  but  artistic  home.  Still 
again,  the  word  hotel,  casino,  or  tavern,  though  it  would 
suggest  but  little  about  John  Everton  himself,  would 
denote  very  definitely  John's  surroundings. 

From  this  study  of  the  word  house  we  may  see  that 
vividness  and  precision  are  secured  by  the  use  of  the 
specific  rather  than  the  general  word.  General  words 
have  their  uses  —  very  important  uses,  too ;  but  in  our 
oral  or  in  written  work  —  whether  descriptive  or  narrative 
—  we  wish  to  paint  a  picture  and  must  see  that  the  nar- 
rowly specific  word,  be  it  noun,  verb,  adverb,  or  adjective, 
is  our  most  effective  word.  By  reading  and  examining 
the  following  description  from  Maxim  Gorky's  short 
stor}',  Tchelkache,  we  may  see  more  plainly  the  value  of  the 
specific  word: 

"  When  the  'longshoremen,  leaving  their  work,  were  dis- 
persed in  noisy  groups  over  the  wliarf,  buying  food  from  open- 
air  merchants,  and  settling  themselves  on  the  pavement,  in 
shady  corners,  to  eat,  Grichka  Tchelkache,  on  old  jail-bird, 
appeared  among  them.  He  was  game  often  hunted  by  the 
police,  and  the  entire  quay  knew  him  for  a  hard  drinker  and  a 
clever,  daring  thief.  He  was  bare-headed  and  bare-footed,  and 
wore  a  worn  pair  of  velvet  trousers  and  a  percale  blouse  torn 
at  the  neck,  showing  his  sharp  and  angular  bones,  covered 
with  brown  skin.  His  tousled  black  hair,  streaked  with  gray, 
and  his  sharp  visage,  resembling  a  bird  of  prey's,  all  rumpled. 


WORDS  179 

indicating  that  he  had  just  awakened.  From  his  mustache 
hung  a  straw,  another  clung  to  his  unshaved  cheek,  while 
behind  his  ear  was  a  fresh  linden  leaf.  Tall,  bony,  a  little 
bent,  he  walked  slowly  over  the  stones,  and  turning  his  hooked 
nose  from  side  to  side,  cast  piercing  glances  about  him,  appear- 
ing to  be  seeking  some  one  among  the  'longshoremen.  His  long, 
thick,  brown  mustache  trembled  like  a  cat's,  and  his  hands, 
behind  his  back,  rubbed  each  other,  pressing  closely  together 
their  twisted  and  knotty  lingers.  Even  here  among  hundreds 
of  his  own  kind,  he  attracted  attention  by  his  resemblance  to  a 
sparrow-hawk  of  the  steppes,  by  his  rapacious  leanness,  his 
easy  stride,  outwardly  calm  but  alert  and  watchful  as  the  flight 
of  the  bird  he  recalled." 

Now  the  general  thought  ■  presented  in  this  extract  is 
that  of  a  man's  personal  appearance,  but  the  words  are  so 
well  chosen  that  the  reader  forms  a  vivid  picture  of  the  old 
jail-bird.  His  "  tousled  black  hair,"  his  "  brown  trembling 
mustache,"  with  the  single  straw  hanging  to  it,  his  tall, 
long,  slightly  bent  form,  his  piercing  eyes  and  hooked  nose 
— all  these  details,  conveyed  by  a  happy  selection  of  adjec- 
tives, form  a  definite  picture  in  the  mind  of  the  reader 
and  could  easily  be  transferred  by  a  painter  to  the  canvas. 
We  should  have  to  supply  unessential  details,  but  we  should 
not  find  this  task  difficult;  for  all  important  suggestions 
are  given  us  —  even  in  matters  of  dress,  such  as  the  worn, 
velvet  trousers  and  the  torn,  open  shirt.  All  these  de- 
tails, or  counterparts  of  these,  we  have  seen  in  just  the 
combination  here  revealed.  The  result  is,  that  out  of  the 
old  and  the  commonplace,  something  entirely  original  and 
concrete  is  produced. 

Now  that  the  foregoing  description  has  revealed  certain 
secrets  of  specific  attainment  in  style  and  composition,  let 
us  see  what  the  following  narrative  selection  from  Jack 


180  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

London's  Call  of  the  Wild  will  reveal.  The  reader  will  re- 
call that  the  passage  describes  a  scene  which  occurs  after 
"  Black  "  Burton  has  picked  a  quarrel  with  a  tenderfoot, 
and  Thornton  has  good-naturedly  interfered.  Burton  re- 
sists the  interference,  suddenly  strikes  Thornton  a  blow 
that  sends  him  spinning  toward  the  rail  of  the  bar,  and  in 
that  hurried  movement  arouses  the  fierce  ire  of  the  dog. 
Buck. 

"  Those  who  were  looking  on,  heard  what  was  neither  bark 
nor  yelp,  but  a  something  which  is  best  described  as  a  roar, 
and  they  saw  Buck's  body  rise  up  in  the  air  as  he  left  the  floor 
for  Burton's  throat.  The  man  saved  his  life  by  iustinctively 
throwing  out  his  arm,  but  was  hurled  backward  to  the  floor 
with  Buck  on  top  of  him.  Buck  loosed  his  teeth  from  the 
flesh  of  the  arm  and  drove  in  again  for  the  throat.  This  time 
the  man  succeeded  only  in  partly  blocking,  and  his  throat  was 
torn  open.  Then  the  crowd  was  upon  Buck,  and  he  was  driven 
off;  but  while  a  surgeon  checked  the  bleeding,  Buck  prowled 
up  and  down  growling  furiously,  attempting  to  rush  in  and 
being  forced  back  by  an  army  of  hostile  clubs." 

When  we  examined  the  descriptive  selection  from  Gorky, 
we  noted  that  the  intense  visualization  was  largely  effected 
by  a  happy  selection  of  adjectives  ;  here,  in  this  lively  nar- 
rative sketch  of  London's,  we  see  that  the  energy  and  the 
vividness  of  the  scene  are  largely  due  to  the  choice  of 
effective  verbs  and  nouns.  Now  let  us  examine  the  selec- 
tion more  carefully,  and  select  some  of  the  words  and 
phrases  that  London  used  to  reproduce  the  action  which 
he  saw  so  clearly  in  his  own  mind. 

The  spectators  saw  Buck's  body  "rise  in  the  air"  to- 
ward Burton's  throat.  Burton  "  threw  out  his  arm,"  but 
Buck  "hurled"  him  "backward."  Then  Buck  "loosed 
his   teeth "   from    the    arm,  and   immediately   "  drove   in 


WORDS  181 

again"  for  the  throat.  This  action  Burton  only  partially 
"blocked,"  and  his  "throat  was  torn  open."  Buck 
was  then  "  driven  off "  by  the  crowd,  and  a  surgeon 
"  checked  the  bleeding,"  but  Buck  continued  to  "  prowl  " 
up  and  down,  "  growling  "  furiously. 

The  verbs  here  used,  together  with  the  nouns,  express 
the  successive  actions  that  make  up  the  incident.  The 
words  are  so  strong  and  so  simple  that  they  make  us  think 
of  our  own  experiences.  We  have  not  seen  the  identical 
actions,  but  we  have  seen  similar  actions ;  and  our  im- 
agination readily  unites  the  diversified  concrete  acts  into 
a  connected  whole.  Furthermore,  these  words  appeal  to 
us  in  varied  ways. 

Most  of  these  which  we  have  quoted  appeal  to  the  eye, 
—  to  our  sense  of  form,  as  in  "Buck,"  "throat,"  "arm," 
"teeth";  to  our  sense  of  color,  as  in  "bleeding."  But 
the  words  "  bark,"  "  yelp,"  "  roar,"  and  "  growl "  appeal 
to  the  ear ;  and  such  a  phrase  as  "  loosed  his  teeth  from 
the  flesh  of  the  arm,"  not  only  recalls  visual  experiences, 
but  also  revives  muscular  sensation  (the  sense  of  feeling). 

The  general  term  sensation  comprehends  all  impressions 
that  are  made  on  our  sense  organs  —  the  sensations  of 
sight,  hearing,  touch,  taste,  and  odor.  In  order  to  express 
vividly  the  different  appeals  which  the  five  senses  make, 
we  should  cultivate  a  sense  for  the  vivid  and  specific  word. 
When,  in  our  narrative  and  descriptive  writing  or  speak- 
ing, we  are  trying  to  suggest  to  our  friends  the  images, 
sensations,  and  actions  which  we  have  in  mind,  we  shall 
try  to  select  words  that  suggest  definite,  concrete  impres- 
sions. In  this  endeavor  we  shall  succeed  best  by  using 
the  specific  word,  for  the  idea  which  this  specific  word 
names  will  most  readily  connect  itself  with  the  reader's 
experience. 


182  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


EXERCISE 

Select  three  passages  from  poetry  or  prose  which  contain 
specific  ivords.     Show  the  advantage  of  the  specific  ivords. 

Euphonious  and  Cacophonous  Words.  —  A  word  may  have 
the  sanction  of  reputable,  national,  and  current  usage,  but 
may  be  objectionable  because  it  is  accompanied  by  inhar- 
monious sounds  or  similar  word  endings ;   as, 

"  I  came  near  missing  seeing  you/'  or,  "  I  can  candidly  say." 

The  repetition  of  the  syllables  ing  and  caji  produces 
what  we  call  cacophony — an  ill-sounding  effect.  The 
young  writer  is  frequently  in  doubt  concerning  the  repe- 
tition of  a  word.  He  has  learned  that  such  repetition  as 
the  following  sounds  crude  : 

"  I  saw  a  cow  in  the  pasture.     I  was  walking  through  the 

pasture." 

Yet  when    he  reads  Coleridge's  Ancient   Mariner,  he    is 
somehow  charmed  by  such  lines  as  these : 

"  Alone,  alone,  all,  all  alone, 
Alone  on  a  wide,  wide  sea ! " 

In  this  confusion  the  pupil  searches  for  some  guiding 
principle.  He  may  let  his  choice  be  determined  by  one  or 
all  of  the  following  considerations:  (1)  clearness,  (2)  force, 
and  (3)  euphony.  He  should  try  to  see  that  no  one  of  these 
three  is  disregarded.  One  thing  he  must  not  do:  he  must 
not  betray  his  anxiety  to  avoid  repetition  by  such  unskill- 
ful shifts  as  the  following: 

"  John  tried  to  study  his  lesson  in  the  same  room  where 
other  pupils  were  perusing  their  books." 


WORDS  183 

He  should  guard  against  ending  several  sentences  with 
the  same  word;  as, 

To-morrow  I  go  to  school.  We  study  mat-weaving  in  school. 
An  unconscious  rhyme  may  also  sound  bad;  as, 

If  you  think  it  will  rain,  I  will  go  on  the  train. 

A  study  of  the  beautiful  effects  which  arise  from  the 
proper  combination  of  syllables  will  help  to  remedy  this 
grievous  fault.  Strict  training  in  listening  to  the  sounds 
of  words  will  aid  in  cultivating  a  sense  for  pleasing  sound 
and  in  developing  the  habit  of  using  agreeable  word-com- 
binations. 

EXERCISES 

I.  From  your  next  literature  assignment^  select  five  exam- 
ples of  euphonious  phrasing. 

II.  Exami7ie  your  own  ivriting,  or  the  writing  of  your 
friends,  to  see  if  you  can  discover  any  ill  sounding  phrases. 

Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin  Words.  —  Many  young  writers  have 
been  told  that  they  should  never  use  a  Latin  word  where 
an  Anglo-Saxon  word  could  be  substituted.  Such  advice 
is  too  sweeping.  In  writing  or  in  speaking,  the  writer 
does  best  when  he  is  hurried  along  by  an  enthusiasm  that 
is  so  concerned  in  expressing  itself  that  it  is  largely  un- 
conscious of  the  means  which  it  employs.  In  the  revision, 
the  written  work  must  be  coldly  scrutinized.  Then  the 
writer  must  face  the  vital  question:  Is  this  word  effective? 
That  the  word  is  of  Anglo-Saxon  or  of  Latin  origin  will 
be  of  minor  importance.  Often  good  taste  demands  the 
short,  the  simple,  and  the  concise,  especially  for  simple 
and  concrete  description  and  narration  ;  fortunately  our 
parent  Anglo-Saxon  has  left  to  modern  English  many 
words  of  this  kind.      Or  the  purpose  may  be  to  express 


184  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

abstract  or  philosophic  thought  in  language  of  correspond- 
ing dignity  and  stateliness ;  fortunately  again  the  English 
language  has  been  a  shrewd  borrower  and  has  furnished 
us  with  a  vocabulary  wliich  will  serve  the  most  discrimi- 
nating thinker. 

We  have  come  to  treat  our  words  on  the  democratic 
basis;  we  test  their  eiliciency,  not  their  nativity.  There- 
fore, if  a  word  exactly  expresses  our  tliought,  we  use  it 
witliout  questioning  its  origin  or  measuring  its  length. 
Read  the  following  passages: 

Thus  they  discoursed  together  till  late  at  night ;  and  after 
they  had  committed  themselves  to  their  Lord  for  protection, 
they  betook  themselves  to  rest.  The  pilgrim  they  laid  in  a  large 
upper  chamber  whose  window  opened  toward  the  sun  rising; 
the  name  of  the  chamber  was  Peace  ;  where  he  slept  till  break 
of  day  and  then  he  awoke  and  saug. 

—  BuNVAN:    The  Pil(jri)n''s  Progress. 

Per  cent  of  foreign  words,  11.8  per  cent. 

To  talk  in  a  manner  intentionally  above  the  comprehension  of 
those  whom  we  address  is  unquestionable  pedantry  ;  but  surely 
complaisance  requires  that  no  man  should,  without  proof,  con- 
clude his  company  incapable  of  following  him  to  the  highest 
elevation  of  his  fancy,  or  to  the  utmost  extent  of  his  knowledge. 
It  is  always  safer  to  err  in  favor  of  others  than  of  ourselves, 
and  therefore  we  seldom  hazard  much  by  endeavoring  to  excel. 

—  Dr.  Johnson:  The  Rambler. 

Per  cent  of  foreign  words,  29.1  per  cent. 

Religion,  in  a  large  sense,  doth  signify  the  whole  duty  of  man, 
comprehending  in  it  justice,  charity,  and  sobriety;  because  all 
these  being  commanded  by  God,  they  become  a  part  of  that 
honor  and  worship  which  we  are  bound  to  pay  to  him. 

—  Jkkemy  Taylor  :  Hohj  Living  and  Dying. 

Per  cent  of  foreign  words,  30.2  per  cent. 


WORDS  185 

A  glance  at  the  foregoing  selections  proves  that  not  all 
Latin  words  are  long,  and  that  not  all  Anglo-Saxon  words 
are  short;  yet  the  general  distinction  is  clear.  Anglo- 
Saxon  names  the  ideas  that  are  specific,  tangible,  and  sim- 
ple; Latin  names  the  ideas  that  are  general,  intangible, 
and  complicated.  The  distinction  does  not  imply  that  the 
one  is  better  than  the  other;  it  does  imply  that  the  prin- 
ciple which  determines  choice  is  the  nice  adjustment  of 
the  word  to  the  idea.  Where  exactness  is  the  aim,  the 
etymology  of  the  word  will  sink  to  its  properly  subordi- 
nate plane. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Select  a  topic  for  a  theme  in  witicli  you  expect  to  use  a 
large  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  tvords. 

II.  Select  a  topic  in  tvhich  you  think  that  you  zvill  use  a 
smaller  proportion  of  Anglo-Saxon  words  than  you  used  in 
writing  the  foregoing  composition. 

Strong  and  Hackneyed  Words.  —  Certain  words  that  are 
unobjectionable  in  themselves  have  so  often  been  grouped 
with  certain  other  words  that  the  phrases  in  which  they 
occur  have  grown  threadbare  through  repeated  and  tire- 
some use.  Some  of  these  words  and  expressions  may 
once  have  been  effective,  but  they  have  been  so  long 
tossed  about  by  people  who  carelessly  speak  and  write 
that  the  combinations  have  lost  all  their  original  effective- 
ness. Such  people  stupidly  imagine  that  "  going  to  bed" 
is  a  vulgar  phrase,  but  that  "  seeking  their  downy  couch" 
is  an  expression  characterized  by  elegance  and  refinement. 
Accordingly,  they  betray  their  lack  of  taste  by  discarding 
the  simple  and  strong  phrase  in  order  to  accept  the  cheap 
and  tawdry  ornament. 


186 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


Young  writers  ishould  not  forget  that  in  language,  as  in 
dress,  there  is  a  constant  requirement  for  the  simple  and 
the  quiet.  The  true  elegance  is  the  quiet,  unobtrusive 
elegance  of  simple  and  unaffected  speech.  Clieap  finery 
in  phrase  and  garb  is  alwa3-s  out  of  place.  As  children 
are  deceived  by  tinsel  and  glitter,  so  young  students  may 
be  deceived  by  the  over-adorned  phrase.  Examples  of 
the  trite  and  hackneyed  words  are  accordingly  printed 
here,  as  a  warning  to  the  young  writer  who  wishes  to 
write  well. 


point  with  pride 

fine  as  silk 

pale  as  death 

disciple  of  Izaak  Walton 

broad  acres 

sunk  into  his  last  sleep 

a  modern  Goliath 

paternal  ancestors 

clad  in  conventional  black 

potent  factor 

raven  locks 

alabaster  brow 

white  as  ivory 

ivory  brow  —  marble  brow 

carpet  of  green  grass 


ruby  lips 

pearly  teeth 

melting  brown  eyes 

launched  into  eternity  (hanged) 

Providence  permitting 

blanket  of  snow 

Mother  ISTature 

Father  Time 

point  the  finger  of  scorn 

melancholy  days 

rosy  dawn 

the  sun  in  all  his  glory 

the  moon  in  her  pale  beauty 

silvery  moon 

velvety  lawn 


Most  of  these  phrases  lack  simple  directness ;  instead 
of  naming  the  idea  at  once,  they  indulge  in  circumlocu- 
tion. Some  of  them,  —  "raven  locks"  and  "ivory  brow," 
for  instance,  —  were  proper  once,  but  by  repeated  and  in- 
discriminate use  they  have  lost  their  vitalit}-.  All  these 
expressions  sliow  an  indulgence  in  style  for  the  sake  of 
the  style,  whereas  language  sliould  concern  itself  with  the 
expression  of   the  thought  for  the  sake  of  the  thought. 


WORDS  187 

The  style  of  the  good  writer,  like  that  of  the  well-dressed 
man,  does  not  attract  attention  to  itself.  The  chief  ob- 
jection, then,  to  the  use  of  the  hackneyed  expression  is 
that  it  fails  to  convey  anything  of  the  real  feelings  of  the 
writer.     It  is  a  borrowing  of  some  past  effect. 

HOW   TO   SECURE   A   LARGE   VOCABULARY 

The  real  possession  of  a  writer  or  a  speaker  is  his  stock 
of  ideas  and  of  words.  Between  these  ideas  and  words 
the  relationship  is  so  intimate  that  one  can  scarcely  be 
retained  witliout  the  other.  Sir  William  Hamilton  com- 
pares the  process  of  thought  formation  to  the  excavation 
for  a  tunnel ;  language  is  the  stone  arch  which  supports 
the  thought  structure.  We  cannot  accurately  communi- 
cate ideas  without  words ;  and  the  charm  and  precision 
of  this  communication  will  depend  largely  on  what  our 
Anglo-Saxon  ancestors  called  the  word-hord.  If  this 
word-hord  is  scant  and  insufficient  we  shall  find  ourselves 
sorely  hampered,  and  our  oral  and  written  expression  will 
be  crude  and  unsatisfactory,  but  with  an  extensive  vocab- 
ulary at  our  command,  we  can  express  our  ideas  with 
accuracy  and  with  beauty.  And  the  pleasure  and  profit 
are  all  the  greater  when  we  discover  that  this  increase  in 
words  which  we  know  how  to  use  means  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  number  of  ideas  that  come  into  our  mind. 
With  the  acquirement  of  every  new  word  there  comes 
either  a  new  thought  or  a  new  phase  of  an  old  thought. 
It  is  not  strange,  then,  that  there  is  such  great  advantage 
in  the  acquiring  of  new  words.  It  is  the  duty  of  every 
one  to  be  constantly  calling  new  words  to  his  service  and 
to  develop  the  habit  of  using  his  words  with  careful  dis- 
crimination. 


188  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


METHODS  FOR    INCREASING  ONE'S  VOCABULARY 

In  Reading  and  Listening,  Watch  for  New  Words. — Books 
and  magazines  will  I'uruish  rich  opportiiiiity  fur  adding  to 
one's  vocabulary.  Here  words  are  in  action ;  we  may 
observe  the  qualities  that  recommend  various  words  for 
various  uses.  If  we  are  puzzled,  our  recourse  is  the 
dictionary  —  unless  we  are  privileged  to  have  at  our  side 
a  person  who  can  explain  the  meaning.  This  active  play 
of  words  we  see,  too,  in  the  conversation  that  goes  on 
about  us.  Young  people  can  learn  much  by  listening  to 
the  familiar  talk  of  parent,  teacher,  or  minister.  Make 
a  list  of  all  new  expressions  thus  heard  and  note  the  i)ar- 
ticular  shade  of  meaning  each  suggests. 

Look  up  the  New  Words  in  a  Dictionary  and  Study  the 
Definitions,  Synonyms,  and  Antonyms.  ^  —  By  observing  this 
direction,  in  addition  to  the  first,  the  pupil  will  not  only 
learn  to  appreciate  the  finer  shades  of  meaning  in  the  use 
of  words,  but  he  will  learn  to  use  a  vocabulary  of  richer 
content. 

Take  Infinite  Pains  in  Translations.  —  Pupils  wdio  are 
studying  a  foreign  language,  will  find  no  better  training 
than  the  attempt  to  secure  the  highest  degree  of  accuracy 
and  charm  in  translation.  The  idiom  of  one  language 
frequently  clashes  with  the  idiom  of  another.  Nothing  is 
of  greater  service  than  to  try  with  patience  and  ingenuity 
to  get  the  right  expression.     The  earnest  pupil  will  not 

1  List  of  good  reference  books : 

:)r.  Bell's  The  Worth  of  Words. 

Trench's  The  Study  of  Words. 

Roget's  Thpsaurus. 

Crabbs's  Emjlish  Synonyms. 

Fernakl's  EnrjUsh  Synonyms,  Antnnyins,  and  Prepositions. 


WORDS  189 

give  up  until  he  has  secured  tlie  exact,  the  inevitable, 
word. 

Observe  Every  Passing  Phenomenon.  —  Sometimes,  as  we 
have  hinted,  we  gain  possession  of  an  idea  before  we  are 
able  to  name  it.  Perhaps  most  of  us,  when  we  were  chil- 
dren, have  noticed  that  water  left  in  a  saucer  in  the 
sun  soon  dries  up.  By  questioning  our  parents  or  older 
brothers,  we  have  learned  that  the  name  for  this  process 
is  evaporation.  Similarly,  we  have  learned  the  names  of 
other  physical  processes,  such  as  gravitation,  combustion, 
and  electrolysis.  By  being  curiously  observant  of  such 
phenomena  as  these,  we  can,  by  questioning,  increase  our 
stock  of  ideas  and  words. 

Make  Free  Use  of  New  Words.  —  Hitherto  we  have  laid 
stress  upon  the  mere  acquirement  of  a  vocabulary.  In 
order  that  our  stock  of  words  may  be  helpful,  it  must  be 
kept  in  active  service.  Money  piled  up  in  vaults  is  use- 
less; only  money  that  circulates  increases  in  value.  No 
one  has  expressed  more  happily  than  Professor  Palmer 
the  value  and  interest  of  the  active  use  of  new  words. 
Read  carefully  what  he  says  : 

"  Why,  then,  do  we  hesitate  to  swell  our  words  to  meet  om* 
needs  ?  It  is  a  nonsense  question.  There  is  no  reason.  We 
are  simply  lazy ;  too  lazy  to  make  ourselves  comfortable.  We 
let  our  vocabularies  be  limited  and  get  along  rawly  without 
the  refinements  of  human  intercourse,  without  refinements  in 
our  own  thoughts ;  for  tlioughts  are  almost  as  dependent  on 
words  as  words  on  thoughts.  For  example,  all  exasperations 
we  lump  together  as  '  aggravating ,'  not  considering  whether 
they  may  not  rather  be  displeasing,  annoying,  offensive,  dis- 
gusting, irritating,  or  even  maddening ;  and  without  observing, 
too,  that  in  our  reckless  usage  we  have  burned  up  a  word 
which  might  be  convenient  when  we  should  like  to  mark  some 


190  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

shading  of  the  word  increase.  Like  the  bad  cook,  we  seize  the 
frying  pan  whenever  we  need  to  fry,  boil,  or  stew,  and  then 
we  wonder  why  all  our  dishes  taste  alike,  while  in  the  next 
house  the  food  is  appetizing.  It  is  all  unnecessary.  Enlarge 
the  vocabulary.  Let  any  one  who  wants  to  see  himself  grow, 
resolve  to  adopt  two  new  words  each  week.  It  will  not  be  long 
before  the  endless  arid  enchanting  variety  of  the  world  will 
begin  to  reflect  in  his  speech  and  in  his  mind  as  well.  I 
know  that  when  we  use  a  word  for  the  first  time,  we  are 
startled,  as  if  a  fire-cracker  went  off  in  our  neighborhood;  We 
look  about  hastily  to  see  if  any  one  has  noticed.  But  finding 
that  no  one  has,  we  niay  be  emboldened.  A  word  used  three 
times  slips  off  the  tongue  with  entire  naturalness.  Then  it  is 
ours  forever,  and  with  it  some  phase  of  life  which  had  been 
lacking  hitherto.  For  each  word  presents  its  own  point  of 
view,  discloses  a  special  aspect  of  things,  reports  some  little 
importance  not  otherwise  conveyed,  and  so  contributes  its 
small  emancipation  to  our  tied-up  minds  and  tongues." 

Even  if  we  hesitate  to  use  these  newly  acquired  words 
in  speech,  we  need  not  hesitate  to  write  them.  We  can 
resolve  to  use  in  each  of  our  compositions  or  letters  one 
word  which  we  have  never  used  before.  This  device  is 
mechanical,  to  be  sure,  and  at  times  it  will  be  unsatisfac- 
tory; but  the  accrued  result  will  justify  the  endeavor. 
In  this  —  as  indeed  in  all  writing  —  appropriateness  will 
be  our  best  guide.  We  shall  avoid  all  affectation  and 
undue  quaintness  and  novelty,  but  we  shall  draw  freely 
from  the  approved  resources  of  the  language  and  concern 
ourselves  with  making  the  word  "cousin  to  the  deed." 

To  the  young  writer  the  words  of  Robert  Louis  Stevenson 
are  inspiring.  He  consciously  strove  to  master  words  and 
with  what  excellent  results  the  following  selection  shows  : 

"All   through  my  boyhood   and  youth  I  was  known  and 


WORDS  191 

pointed  out  for  the  pattern  of  an  idler ;  and  yet  I  was  always 
busy  on  my  own  private  end,  which  was  to  learn  to  write.  I 
kept  always  two  books  in  my  pocket,  one  to  read,  one  to  write 
in.  As  I  walked,  my  mind  was  busy  fitting  what  I  saw  with 
appropriate  words ;  when  I  sat  by  the  roadside,  I  would  either 
read,  or  a  pencil  and  a  penny  version-book  would  be  in  my 
hand  to  note  down  the  features  of  the  scene  or  commemorate 
some  halting  stanzas.  Thus  I  lived  with  words.  And  what  I 
thus  wrote  was  for  no  ulterior  use;  it  was  written  consciously 
for  practice.  It  was  not  so  much  that  I  wished  to  be  an  author 
(though  I  wished  that,  too)  as  that  I  had  vowed  that  I  would 
learn  to  write.  That  was  a  proficiency  that  tempted  me ;  and 
I  practiced  to  acquire  it,  as  men  learn  to  whittle,  in  a  wager 
with  myself.  Description  was  the  principal  field  of  my  exer- 
cise; for  to  any  one  with  sense  there  is  always  something  worth 
describing,  and  town  and  country  are  but  one  continuous  sub- 
ject. Whenever  I  read  a  book  or  a  passage  that  particularly 
pleased  me,  in  which  a  thing  was  said  or  an  effect  rendered 
with  propriety,  in  which  there  was  either  some  conspicuous 
force  or  some  happy  distinction  in  the  style,  I  must  sit  down 
at  once  and  set  myself  to  ape  that  quality.  I  Avas  unsuccessful, 
and  I  knew  itj  and  tried  again,  and  was  again  unsuccessful, 
and  always  unsuccessful;  but  at  least  in  these  vain  bouts  I 
got  some  practice  in  rhythm  or  harmony  in  construction  and 
the  coordination  of  parts." 

EXERCISES 

I.  From  your  next  lusigninent  i7i  your  literature  work^ 
select  jive  of  the  7nost  unfamiliar  tvords,  and  use  them  in  a 
composition. 

II.  Find  five  synonyms  for  the  foregoing  five  words,  and 
use  them  in  sentences. 

III.  Find  five  antonyms  for  the  same  five  words,  and  use 
them  in  a  letter  to  an  imaginary  friend  in  London. 


192 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


IV.  Determine  to  acquire  during  the  next  week  five  new 
words.  In  a  letter  to  your  teacher^  describe  in  detail  lioio 
each  of  these  ivas  acquired. 

V.  In  every  composition  that  you  ivrite  hereafter,  use  at 
least  one  neiv  word.  Underscore  each  one  so  that  your 
teacher  may  knotv  what  tvords  you  are  acquiring. 

VI.  In  going  to  and  from  school  he  on  the  constant  ivateh 
for  new  phenomena.  Describe  one  of  these  and  give  it  its 
proper  name. 

VII.  In  some  poem  or  poems  you  chance  to  read  during 
the  week,  make  a  list  of  words  ivhich  sound  perfectly  proper, 
but  which  you  would  not  admit  into  your  own  prose. 

VIII.  From  the  folloiving  list  of  words  select  five  that  are 
unfamiliar.  Consult  the  dictionary  in  regard  to  each  of 
these,  and  then  use  them  in  sentences.  Which  ones  are  of 
Latin  origin? 


cursory 

manipulate 

apprehend 

diminutive 

premise 

insuperable 

transcendent 

immutable 


termagant 

facile 

expedient 

exigency 

sentient 

cadaverous 

anomalous 

alleviation 


equivocal 

importunate 

trepidation 

accelerate 

inordinate 

exorbitant 

tenuous 

grotesque 


IX.  Can  you  recall  when,  in  your  early  childhood,  you 
learned  certain  words?     If  you  can,  ivrite  about  it. 

X.  Make  a  list  of  five  or  more  specific  words  that  may  he 
comprehended  by  the  general  terms  boat,  school,  metal, 
inerrhant,  and  workman. 

Few  or  Many  Words.  — 'IMie  large  question  of  inclusion 
and  exclusion  lias  already  been  discussed  in  tlie  chapter  on 
the  whole  composition,  and  also  in  the  one  on  the  para- 


WORDS  193 

graph.  In  narrating  an  incident,  we  must  discard  the 
unessential ;  in  describing  an  object,  we  must  not  burden 
the  reader  with  a  confusing  multiplicity  of  details ;  in 
ex-position  and  argumentation,  we  must  have  a  definite 
purpose  and  reject  all  the  irrelevant  topics.  Where  repe- 
tition and  amplification  contribute  to  clearness,  we  shall 
freely  include  ;  where  they  simply  divert,  we  shall  as  freely 
exclude.  The  general  principles  that  apply  to  the  inclusion 
or  the  exclusion  of  the  paragraph  in  the  composition,  or  to 
the  sentence  in  the  paragraph,  apply  also  to  the  admission 
or  rejection  of  words  in  a  sentence.  The  fault  is  as  great 
when  we  use  too  few  words  as  when  we  use  too  many  words. 

"Our  words,"  says  Professor  Palmer,  "should  fit  our 
thoughts  like  a  glove,  and  be  neither  too  wide  nor  too 
tight.  If  too  wide,  they  will  include  much  vacuity  besides 
the  intended  matter.  If  too  tight,  they  Avill  check  the 
strong  grasp." 

Using  too  few  words  sometimes  makes  the  meaning  of  a 
sentence  doubtful.     The  sentence, 

I  saw  the  secretary  and  treasurer  of  the  club, 

strictly  means  that  the  oftice  of  secretary  and  treasurer 
was  combined.  If  the  speaker  means  that  he  saw  two 
persons,  he  should  say, 

I  saw  the  secretary  and  the  treasurer. 

Many  terms  are  employed  to  designate  the  fault  of  using 
too  many  words.  Tautology  names  the  common  fault  of 
unnecessarily  repeating  an  idea  in  diiTerent  words ;  as,  a 
netv  beginner,  the  first  invemtor,  generally  disliked  by  most 
people.  Pleonasm  consists  in  the  repetition  of  an  idea  im- 
plied in  some  other  word  or  element  in  the  sentence ;  as, 
blach  pitch,  green  verdure,  and  the  free  intrusions  of  and's, 
very's,  and  so's.     Circumlocution  is  a  roundabout  way  of 


194  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

expressing  a  simple  idea;  as,  He  ivas  laiuiched  into  eternity^ 
instead  of  He  died;  or,  The  ebony  opposite  of  day,  for  7iight. 
Redundancy,  superfluity,  verbosity,  diffuseness,  and  pro- 
lixity all  express  a  superabundance  of  words  or  of  unim- 
portant ideas.  The  young  writer  will  avoid  these  faults 
by  obeying  the  simple  injunction  : 
Be  as  concise  as  clearness  loill  permit. 

EXERCISE 

Condense  the  folloiving  sentences: 

1.  A  dark,  gloomy,  black  cloud  was  gathering  in  the  west. 

2.  Columbus  was  the  first  discoverer  of  America. 

3.  His  mental  powers  have  been  atrophied,  dulled,  and 
paralyzed  by  dissipation. 

4.  This  truth  is  universally  believed  by  all  the  people  on 
the  face  of  the  earth. 

5.  The  optic  nerve  of  the  eye  has  been  destroyed. 

6.  A  soft,  white,  fleecy,  powdery  snow  has  been  falling  all 
night. 

7.  The  acoustic  arrangements  were  so  arranged  as  to  enable 
every  one  to  hear  well. 

8.  The  sisters  differ  from  each  other  in  many  respects. 

9.  Her  hobby  is  to  collect  together  as  many  post-cards  as 
possible. 

10.  A  vast  multitude  of  people  assembled  in  great  numbers 
to  hear  the  evangelist. 

11.  The  exigency  of  the  occasion  demands  that  we  make 
haste  and  huny  home. 

12.  Indisjmtable   evidence  which   no  one   could  contradict 
was  introduced  at  the  trial. 

1.3.    Her  rosy  cheeks  were  redder  than  the  crimson  dawn. 
14.    The  people  unanimously  voted  with  one  accord  for  the 
candidates  who  favored  high  license. 


WORDS  195 

15.  Just  as  the  golden  sun  was  flooding*  the  landscape  with 
a  bright,  gleaming,  effulgent  light,  the  raging  conflict  between 
the  hostile  forces  of  the  opposing  sides  was  fought  with  great 
spirit. 

16.  Yesterday  afternoon,  at  two  o'clock,  the  last  sad  rites  over 
the  departed  soul  of  the  deceased  sister  were  observed  with 
affecting  ceremony. 

17.  The  minister  expatiated  at  length  in  a  long  sermon  on 
"  Secret  Sin." 

18.  The  physician  says  that  he  has  discovered  an  infallible 
remedy  which  he  warrants  will  cure  consumption. 

19.  As  we  continued  our  journey,  the  sable  goddess  who 
opens  the  vesper  gates  stole  upon  us,  and  compelled  us  to  stay 
our  footsteps  until  the  rosy  fingered  Aurora  should  unclasp  the 
gates  of  dawn. 

20.  Sweet,  melodious,  tuneful,  harmonious  music  fell  upon 
our  ears  with  a  soothing,  euphonious  sound  which  calmed  our 
troubled  spirits. 

21.  The  green  verdure  against  the  pitchy  black  of  ebony 
darkness  was  scarcely  discernible. 

22.  The  happy  couple  are  about  to  embark  upon  the  sea  of 
matrimony. 

23.  The  last  days  of  the  murderer  whose  soul  was  about  to 
be  launched  into  eternity  were  spent  in  making  preparation 
for  the  departure  of  his  soul  into  that  bourne  whence  no 
traveler  returns. 

24.  When  Irving  returned  back  to  the  native  land  of  his 
birth  he  found  that  many  changes,  vicissitudes,  and  misfortunes 
had  occurred  in  it. 

25.  He  first  made  an  objectionable  statement,  and  then,  to 
add  to  its  offensiveness,  he  repeated  it  again. 

26.  He  said  absolutely  nothing. 

27.  They  were  utterly  annihilated. 

28.  The  children  will  please  rise  to  their  feet. 

Again,  young  writers  are  likely  to  omit  connectives  and 


196  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

thus,  by  using  too  few  words,  obscure  the  consecutive  line 
of  thought.  Professor  Hill  says,  "Strike  from  a  page  of 
any  master  of  reasoning  every  tliongh,  while,  hence,  accord- 
ingly, yet,  notivithstanding,  for,  therefore,  on  the  one  hand, 
on  the  other  hand,  now,  indeed,  and  you  will  be  surprised  to 
see  how  much  is  taken  a\yay." 

EXERCISES 

I.  Study  your  7iezt ])rose  literature  assignment  to  see  how 
many  expressioiis  are  vsed  to  establish  connection. 

II.  Supply  from  the  folloiving  list  of  words   the  proper 
word  for  each  blank  in  the  sentences  below : 

accept,  except  affect,  effect 

aggravate,  annoy  anxious,  eager 

approach,  address  balance,  remainder 

calculate,  think,  sup2)0se  expect,  suspect 

couple,  two  demean,  debase 

farther,  further  fix,  mend 

healthful,  healthy  hung,  hang 

illusion,  allusion  mad,  angry 

may,  can  observation,  ol)servance 

official,  officious  raise,  rear 

recipe,  receipt  reverend,  reverent 

transpire,  happen  verbal,  oral 

Note.  —  Consult   the    list   of  .words   and    expressions 
violating  good  use,  pages  165-175. 

1.  Every  student  must  conform  to  the  regulations;  I  shall 
no  one. 

2.  Would  you the  apology  if  you  were  1  ? 

3.  The  damp  climate  is  likely  to your  liealth. 

4.  The   climate  of  Arizona,  it  is  said,  will a  cure  for 

tuberculosis. 


WORDS  197 

5.  If  you  continue  to your  teacher,  you  will  be  com- 
pelled to  leave  the  school. 

6.  Overeating  will dyspepsia. 

7.  We  are  growing about  the  friends  who  are  still  out 

on  the  lake. 

8.  The  children  were to  hear  the  story. 

9.  I  should  not  think  of Tom  upon  a  subject  so  hateful 

to  him. 

10.  Let  us the  village  and  if  possible  let  us  enter  and 

make  an  attack. 

11.  I  shall  not  pay  the of  the  account  to-day. 

12.  The of  the  Helvetians  were  put  to  flight  by  Caesar. 

13.  I you  are  wrong  in  this  matter. 

14.  The  expert  bookkeeper  can rapidly. 

15.  Let  us the  earth  to  be   the   center  of  some  great 

planetary  system. 

16.  The  people great  things  from  our  legislature. 

17.  A  few  people that  bribery  and  corruption  have  en- 
tered into  the  management  of  our  city  affairs. 

18.  He  gave  me  a of  his  finest  chickens  for  our  Christmas 

dinner. 

19.  A  happy  joyous they  were,  starting  out  in  search  of 

happiness. 

20.  The  students themselves  in  such  manner  as  to  elicit 

praise  from  their  principal. 

21.  The  soldiers  who  pillaged  the  town themselves  by 

their  cruel  conduct. 

22.  We  could  proceed  no because  of  the  barriers  of  ice. 

23.  The  situation  has  this advantage. 

24.  I  shall  use  these  scraps  to the  dress. 

25.  It   will   be   well   for   us   to this    principle   in   our 

memories. 

26.  His  mind  is  not  in  a normal  condition. 

27.  The  game  of  tennis  provides  for  plenty  of  good 

exercise. 


198  COMPOSITIOX   AND    RHETORIC 

28.  The  chandelier  was from  the  center  of  the  ceiling. 

29.  The  murderer  was last  Friday. 

30.  Magiia's to  the  wrongs  which  their  tribe  had  suf- 
fered, stirred  the  Hurons  to  revenge. 

31.  Geniuses  are  often  subject  to  queer . 

32.  Much  learning  hath  niade  thee . 

33.  The  incident  made  him  very . 

34.    I  be  of  assistance  to  you  ? 

35.    1  be  excused  from  the  next  recitation  ? 

36.  We  learn  from  experience  and . 

37.  They  are  characterized  by  a  strict of  all  the  cere- 
monies practiced  by  the  apostles. 

38.  His manner  was  very  offensive  to  his  schoolmates. 

39.  His duties  .were  so  burdensome  that  he  had  no  time 

to  devote  to  other  interests. 

40.  The  farmer  has a  large  crop  of  wheat  and  corn. 

41.  The  lad  was in  strict  seclusion. 

42.  Your for  pudding  is  excellent. 

43.  In  business  it  is  always  well  to  take  a . 

44.  The old  gentleman  with  the  white  hair  is  in  striking 

contrast  to  the  curly-headed  boy  beside  him. 

45.  Let  your  attitude  in  church  be and  attentive. 

46.  These  exciting  incidents many  years  ago. 

47.  The  secret  of  the  meeting  has  just . 

48.  The  engraving  will  give  you  a  better  picture  than  you 
could  get  from  a description. 

49.  The  written  work  was  followed  by  an  exercise  in 

composition. 

III.    Correct  the  folloiving  sentences  hy  removing  the  bar- 
barisms^ vulgarisms^  and  solecisms  : 

1.  The  acoustics  have  been  carefully  provided  for. 

2.  I  allow  that  it  Avill  rain  before  night. 

3.  The  situation  is  serious  anyways  you  put  it. 

4.  You  aren't  surprised,  are  you? 


WORDS  199 

5.  I  do  not  know  as  I  ever  heard  that  song  before. 

6.  "Where  were  you  at  when  the  earthc^uake  occurred  ? 

7.  Isn't  this  an  awfully  nice  day  ? 

8.  Back  of  the  policemen  came  the  artillerymen. 

9.  A  letter  should  be  backed  plainly  in  order  to  facilitate 
the  work  of  the  mail  carriers. 

10.  He  wanted  so  badly  to  see  you. 

11.  Don't  fail  to  be  back  in  time  for  the  senior  entertain- 
ment. 

12.  Beside  this,  he  refused  to  leave  the  study  hall. 

13.  Although  both  dolls  were  exactly  alike,  the   children 
quarreled  over  them. 

14.  The   madman   was   bound  to  kill   any  one  who   came 
across  his  path. 

15.  Webster  was  a  brainy  man  as  well  as  a  man  of  iron 
will. 

16.  The  hot-water  bottle   bursted,  and  the  scalding  water 
burned  my  arm  awfully. 

17.  All  the  family  but  Ethel  and  I  were  invited. 

18.  I  am  not  sure  but  that  you  are  correct. 

19.  Do  not  doubt  but  that  all  will  be  well  in  the  end. 

20.  I  cannot  help  but  believe  that  you  were  at  home  when 
I  called. 

21.  The   light-complected   man   in    the    gray   suit    is   my 
brother. 

22.  The  baby  is  growing  cuter  every  day. 

23.  We  sat  in  the  depot  all  morning,  watching  the  various 
types  and  classes  of  people  who  were  waiting  for  their  trains. 

24.  This  book   is   very    much   different  than  the  last  one 
which  you  loaned  me. 

25.  The    critic  who  don't   enter  sympathetically   into    his 
work,  fails  to  accomplish  the  real  object  of  criticism. 

26.  We  have  had  an  elegant  day  visiting  among  old  friends. 

27.  The  laws  restricting  the  emigration  of  Chinese  into  the 
United  States  are  too  severe. 


200  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

28.  The  speech  was  spirited,  but  it  failed  to  euthuse  the 
audience. 

29.  Lincoln  was  equally  as  great  as  Washington. 

30.  Our  new  minister  preaches  lirst-rate. 

31.  The  prisoner  flew  from  justice. 

32.  The  river  flows  due  south  to  Gosport ;  from  thence  it 
flows  east  to  the  boundary  line  of  the  state  and  again  turns 
south. 

33.  A  restaurant  for  ladies  and  gents  has  been  erected  on 
the  corner  of  Ohio  and  Meridian  streets. 

34.  I  didn't  get  to  say  what  I  had  planned  to  say, 

35.  Margaret  has  got  the  book  which  you  wish  to  borrow. 

36.  Had  you  only  have  told  me  in  time,  I  could  have  been 
of  service  to  you. 

37.  The  boys  staid  home  all  day,  awaiting  the  guests  who 
did  not  arrive. 

38.  I  beg  your  pardon,  but  how  did  you  say  ? 

39.  Please  decide  at  once  if  you  will  obey  me. 

40.  The  new  cadet  was  illy  treated  by  his  classmates. 

41.  In  so  far  as  I  know,  he  is  perfectly  reliable  and  trust- 
worthy. 

42.  The  class  has  been  studying  the  indention  of  written 
conversation. 

43.  We  were  kind  of  tired  after  our  long  walk. 

44.  This  sort  of  weather  is  very  depressing. 

45.  Please  leave  me  clean  the  boards  for  you. 

46.  This  list  contains  less  words  than  the  preceding  one. 

47.  He  acted  like  he  was  angry.  He  behaves  just  like  you 
do. 

48.  The  farmer  raised  a  limited  crop  of  barley  this  year. 

49.  After  disposing  of  your  interests  here,  where  do  you 
expect  to  settle  ? 

50.  Roosevelt  has  lots  of  admirers  in  the  Democratic  party, 
and  should  he  be  nominated  for  the  presidency,  he  would  get  a 
lot  of  support  from  these  admirers. 


WORDS  201 

51.  Please  let  me  off  at  Boston. 

52.  The  child  fell  off  of  the  gangplank  into  the  water. 

53.  Latest  styles  in  pants  to  be  found  at  the  Gentlemen's 
Clothing  Store  on  AVest  Sycamore  Street. 

54.  That  party  to   whom  you  referred  me  has   given  his 
promise  to  support  the  measure. 

55.  An  ounce  of  preventative  is  worth  a  pound  of  cure. 

56.  He  is  well  posted  on  current  events. 

57.  He  had  shown  no  symptoms  of  insanity  previous  to  this 
time. 

58.  His  loyalty  has  been  proven  more  than  once. 

59.  We  shall  be  there  providing  that  it  does  not  rain. 

60.  We  rarely  ever  see  each  other. 

61.  I  am  real  glad  to  be  home  again. 

62.  Brown  did  not  referee  the  game  properly. 

63.  Do  you  remember  of  seeing  that  picture  at  the  World's 
Fair  ? 

64.  He  seldom  or  ever  comes  to  see  us. 

65.  The  patient  is  some  better  to-day. 

66.  The  party  expects  to   stop  for  a  week  or  so  in  Paris, 
then  they  will  go  on  to  Florence. 

67.  Subsequent  to  the  time,  nothing  else  occurred  to  alarm 
the  people  in  the  volcanic  districts. 

68.  He  is  such  a  fine  student  that  every  one  expects  him  to 
receive  a  scholarship. 

69.  The  principal  said  that  he  would  try  and  arrange  for  a 
meeting  of  the  athletic  board. 

70.  He  recited  the  two  last  stanzas  with  fine  effect. 

71.  The  senator's  position  is  most  unique. 

72.  I  shall  not  forgive  you  without  you  make  an  apology. 

73.  He  is  rather  dull  and  stupid,  but  I  like  him  because  he 
is  so  kind  and  clever. 


CHAPTER  VI 

LETTER  WRITING 

The  object  of  all  letter  writing  is  to  convey  a  message 
or  to  give  information.  The  kind  of  message  to  be  con- 
veyed, or  the  character  of  the  information  to  be  given, 
determines  the  kind  of  letters  which  we  are  to  write. 
A  letter  conveying  a  message  of  friendship  or  affection,  or 
one  containing  agreeable  information  given  chiefly  for  the 
sake  of  pleasure  to  the  recipient,  is  a  friendly  letter.  A 
letter  written  for  the  sake  of  some  advantage  (usually 
commercial)  to  be  derived  either  by  the  writer  or  by  the 
recipient,  is  a  business  letter.  These  letters,  differing  so 
much  from  each  other  in  spirit,  differ,  too,  in  form  and 
style.  The  friendly  letter  is  informal  and  full  of  the 
individuality  of  the  writer.  It  seeks  to  enter  into  the 
spirit  of  the  moment  and  to  write  of  things  which  will  be 
of  particular  interest  to  the  reader.  A  traveler  in  Europe, 
writing  to  a  friend  in  America,  will  feel  justified  in  writ- 
ing at  length  about  the  sights  he  is  seeing,  but  he  will 
not  give  the  same  material  which  the  guide-book  fur- 
nishes ;  he  will  introduce  such  personal  incidents  as  will 
add  piquancy  and  charm  to  the  general  account,  and  he 
will  always  be  careful  to  select  such  topics  as  will  appeal 
to  the  temperament  of  the  person  to  whom  he  is  writing. 

202 


LETTER   WRITING  ,         203 

The  business  letter,  on  the  other  hand,  is  brief,  formal, 
and  impersonal.  It  is  courteous,  but  it  pays  no  particular 
attention  to  the  temperament  or  situation  of  the  person 
addressed. 

Kind  of  Paper  to  be  Used. — The  slightest  details  in 
letter  writing  often  reveal  the  writer's  culture  and  refine- 
ment. Lack  of  culture  and  refinement  is  shown  not  only 
in  slovenly  scribbling,  poor  spelling,  faulty  punctuation, 
and  bad  sentence  structure,  but  also  in  the  use  of  cheap, 
showy  letter  paper.  Paper  of  this  sort  is  usually  ruled, 
because  the  persons  who  prefer  it  are  generally  unable  to 
write  an  even,  straight  line  on  the  unruled  paper.  Un- 
ruled linen  paper  of  a  good  quality,  either  in  cream  or  in 
white,  is  always  in  good  taste. 

Folding  of  the  Sheet. —Before  placing  a  letter  in  the 
envelope,  fold  the  sheet  in  such  a  way  that  it  will  fit 
exactly  into  the  envelope.  If  the  paper  requires  only  one 
folding,  make  the  lower  edge  of  the  outside  sheet  meet 
exactly  the  upper  edge.  Paper  used  in  business  corre- 
spondence is  usually  8  x  lOl  and  requires  three  foldings. 
First  the  lower  edge  is  made  to  meet  exactly  the  upper 
edge,  and  the  sheet  is  then  creased  into  thirds  in  such  a 
way  as  to  make  its  shape  conform  to  that  of  the  envelope. 

THE   PARTS   OF   A   LETTER 

The  parts  of  a  letter  are:  (1)  the  heading,  (2)  the 
salutation,  (3)  the  body,  (4)  the  subscription,  and  (5)  the 
superscription.  To  these  parts  is  often  added,  inside  the 
letter,  (6)  the  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter 
is  written.  The  spacing,  the  relative  position,  and  the 
nature  of  these  parts  may  be  noted  in  the  following  forms 
and  in  the  explanations  which  follow: 


204  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Forms  Used  in  Friendly  Letters 


31  (oUlMorwu  A, 

PfUjh  W^OJb  (TiaAAJ,,— 

WjvbTi  m  OiJA  IMjo  /UrOJ  lo'lAO'CuVllycL 


jdX/ncJAJMU  /LjOWU, 


LETTER   WRITING  205 


1^  ITl/wrLi  11. ,  IJ/ioofwdlt,  Imd., 

iTluA  CuLaJv  C&UAyCott, 

2  :j  3  /p  7]/.  Jj/rvrv  M.y 
JibcJvrrioricl ,  Ucu 

U}.njJjj  J  njJXLd  n/tAjJA/nq  .un ClMum/rmJ 


JAuAAJbru:}  XhxxX  Aj<yLi/v  a/TnlnlAyori  rnviu 

CLUiclwriGJjjAj  OjOuJi^, 

iiulA  j'o%auA^ . 


206  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 


(LculAjJ^,  LU  Uco., 

X  nuaynl  tcrJjia/ruL  nioiL  iox  JJvb  JjuzaLo 
Aw-tyh , 


ilcniA  Q.or\lAjnruAjj2jAJurruyrYu;^Myru^ 
hjuj^  /ynl 

dMJMhCbCi  J/mUA. 


LETTER    WRITING  207 


fttOA  Cilicb   TTlLhlt , 


lJ<rbL  yhux/lMy  AXnAlZbTh  /TTLL. 


208  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

By  carefully  noting  and  comparing  the  preceding 
forms,  the  pupil  will  observe  the  following  facts  con- 
cerning the  i)arts  of  a  friendly  letter : 

The  Heading.  —  1 .  The  heading  is  composed  of  the 
address  of  the  writer  and  of  the  date  on  which  the  letter 
is  written. 

2.  Wlien  it  is  used  at  the  beginning  of  a  letter,  as  is 
customar}^  the  heading  is  placed  at  the  riglit  of  the  page, 
beginning  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  from  the  top. 

3.  Each  line  after  the  first  in  the  heading  extends  a 
little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  preceding  line. 

4.  The  heading  may  occupy  either  two  or  three  lines, 
according  to  the  taste  of  the  writer.  When  the  name  of 
the  street  and  the  house  number  are  given,  it  is  better  to 
use  three  lines. 

5.  The  items  in  the  heading  may  be  placed  at  the 
close  of  the  letter  on  the  line  below  the  signature,  be- 
ginning to  the  right  of  the  initials  or  of  the  Christian 
name  in  the  signature. 

6.  A  comma  is  placed  after  each  item  in  the  heading, 
except  the  last,  wldch  is  followed  by  a  period. 

The  Salutation.  —  1.  When  the  address  is  omitted 
from  the  beginning  of  the  letter,  the  salutation  is  placed 
at  the  left  of  the  page  on  the  line  below  the  last  line 
in  the  heading.  It  begins  at  the  margin  of  the  sheet 
—  that  is,  one  inch  from  the  left  edge. 

2.  When  the  address  is  written  at  the  beginning,  the 
salutation  is  placed  on  the  line  below  the  last  line  in  the 
address. 

3.  The  adjectives  coming  between  the  first  and  the  last 
words  in  the  salutation  are  not  capitalized. 

4.  The  punctuation  of  the  salutation  may  vary  accord- 
ing to  the  relation  between  the  correspondents ;  the  comma, 


LETTER   WRITING  209 

or  the  comma  and  the  dash,  may  be  used  in  informal 
letters ;  the  colon,  or  the  colon  and  the  dash,  in  formal 
letters. 

5.  The  nature  of  the  salutation  varies  with  the  degree 
of  intimacy  existing  between  the  correspondents,  "Dear 
Alice,"  for  instance,  indicates  intimate  friendship ;  "  My 
dear  Alice"  is  a  little  more  formal;  and  "My  dear  Miss 
Colescott "  is  still  more  formal. 

The  Address.  — 1.  The  address  consists  of  the  name  and 
the  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is  written. 

2.  The  address  may  be  written  at  the  beginning  of  the 
letter.  If  it  is  so  written,  it  should  be  placed  on  the  line 
below  the  last  line  of  the  heading,  and  should  begin  at  the 
margin  of  the  sheet,  —  that  is,  one  inch  from  the  left  edge. 
If  it  is  written  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  it  should  be  placed 
on  the  line  below  the  signature  and  should  begin  at  the 
margin  on  the  left. 

3.  The  address  may  occupy  two  or  three  lines,  according 
to  the  number  of  items  composing  it,  or  according  to  the 
taste  of  the  writer. 

4.  Each  line  after  the  first  in  the  address  should  extend 
a  little  farther  to  the  right  than  the  preceding  line. 

5.  The  comma  is  used  after  every  item  of  the  address 
except  the  last,  which  is  closed  with  a  period. 

Note.  —  In  friendly  letters  the  address  is  usually 
omitted. 

The  Body  of  the  Letter.  — 1.  The  body  of  the  letter  may 
begin  on  the  line  below  the  salutation,  either  directly 
under  the  second  word  of  the  salutation,  or  immediately 
to  the  right  of  the  last  word  in  the  salutation. 

2.  The  body  of  the  letter  may  close  with  the  last 
sentence  —  as  in  Form  1  —  or  it  may  run  over  into  the 
complimentary  close  —  as  in  Forms  2,  3,  and  4. 


210  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

3.  The  body  of  the  letter  —  unless  it  runs  over  into  the 
coniplinientary  close  —  ends  with  a  period.  When  the 
body  runs  over  into  the  subscrijition,  the  last  word  in  the 
body  is  followed  by  a  comma. 

The  Subscription.  —  1.  The  subscription  consists  of  the 
complimentury  close  —  Yours  truly,  Very  truly  yours. 
Cordially  yours,  Affectionately  yours  —  and  of  the  sig- 
nature. 

2.  The  complimentary  close  is  placed  on  the  line  below 
the  last  line  of  the  body,  at  the  right  of  the  page. 

3.  The  complimentary  close,  which  should  always  con- 
sist of  more  than  one  word,  varies  with  the  relation 
between  the  correspondents.  Affectionately  yours  and 
Lovingly  yours,  for  instance,  indicate  intimate  friendship  ; 
Respectfully  yours  and  Truly  yours  are  more  formal. 

4.  Only  the  first  word  of  the  complimentary  close 
should  be  capitalized. 

5.  The  comma  is  used  at  the  end  of  the  complimentary 
close. 

6.  The  signature  is  placed  upon  the  line  below  the 
complimentary  close  at  the  right  of  the  page. 

The  Superscription.  —  The  superscription  consists  of  the 
name  and  address  of  the  person  to  whom  the  letter  is 
written.  It  is  placed  on  the  envelope  as  in  the  form 
below : 

Miss  Amy  King 

1217  College  Avenue 

Kansas  City 
Missouri. 

With  the  exception  of  the  period,  which  is  used  at  the 
end  of  the  last  item  and  at  the  end  of  abbreviations,  the 
superscription  is  unpunctuated. 


LETTER   WRITING  211 


21  SZaZi  5Z.,  OiMcyimr, ill. 

UJMM.  JjAJ : 

Lnciodid  ruAyw  /UA.LI  .wrixl 


JamMU  AjOVLM, 


212  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 


olult  I'liyalvJorwol,  Uwijlon,  OlbCO; 

rrLoA/.  lb,  not 

Jj(rtkb  CaJilcLOTb  of  LfiM  O'aMoM  OjM^ra 

toAt  liiah  JJuxrt,  CLmloyrul^  OJvjr 
U-ia/b  Jxy'o  :  VJjL  /xhM  1/rv  AJbCJiljil  oi  \juoua, 
Knxrh/nxu/yTu 


/rruLAj  rrrwJuy  /luvLl  m-l  A/iLUl^ojJ^o\aj,Jj>  otw 


LETTER  WRITING  213 


.Iru  AMJMvn  nmyOuJ. 


Lkrhu  ruiro±Ajjiyy<YLLat!AJ,  cMuw  nrru,  Jru 


a  J.  16ynQ  I  Ca.,  I aaJAaatuj^j  , 


214  COMPOSITION   AXD   RHETORIC 

Carefully  noting  the  preceding  forms  used  in  business 
letters,  and  comparing  them  with  tlie  forms  used  in  friendly 
letters,  the  pupil  will  observe  : 

1.  That  the  heading  may  be  written  on  one  line  or  it 
may  occupy  two  or  three  lines. 

2.  That  the  address  must  be  placed  in  the  letter, — 
either  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  close. 

3.  That  the  salutation  is  formal.  Tlie  following  forms 
are  usually  employed  in  business  letters :  Dear  Sir : , 
Dear  Madam  : ,   Gentlemen : ,  Ladies  : . 

4.  That  the  body  of  the  letter  may  begin  on  the  same 
line  with  the  salutation,  immediately  to  the  right  of  it. 

5.  That  the  complimentary  close  is  formal.  Yours  truly. 
Truly  yours,  and  Very  truly  yours  are  commonly  employed. 

6.  The  punctuation  of  the  different  parts  of  a  business 
letter  does  not  vary  from  that  used  in  a  friendly  letter, 
except  in  the  salutation,  which  sometimes  takes  the  short 
dash  after  the  colon. 

FRIENDLY   LETTERS 

If  we  wish  to  communicate  in  .writing  our  mental  ex- 
periences, our  feelings,  our  doings,  or  observations,  to  some 
one  who  is  interested  in  our  thoughts,  feelings,  and  ac- 
tions, we  do  so  in  a  friendly  letter.  In  this  kind  of  letter 
we  employ  an  informal,  conversational  style  which  gives 
our  readers  pleasure  and  places  them  in  intimate  sym- 
pathy with  us. 

For  guidance  in  the  writing  of  friendly  letters,  we  may 
well  ask  ourselves  the  following  questions  suggested  by 
George  H.  Palmer  in  his  excellent  essay.  Self-cultivation 
in  English  :  "  What  things  will  my  correspondent  wish 
to  know  ?     How  can  I  transport  him  out  of  his  properly 


LETTER   WRITING  215 

alien  surroundings  into  the  vivid  impressions  which  are 
now  mine  ?  .How  can  I  tell  all  I  long  to  tell,  and  still  be 
sure  the  telling  will  be  for  him  as  lucid  and  delightful 
as  for  me  ?  " 

In  other  words,  in  the  writing  of  a  friendly  letter  we 
must  constantly  keep  ourselves  in  the  place  of  the  reader. 
We  must  be  acquainted  with  his  interests  and  understand 
his  tastes ;  otherwise,  our  letters  to  him  will  be  unin- 
teresting and  tiresome.  For  instance,  a  letter  containing 
a  detailed  explanation  of  the  mechanism  of  an  engine,  to  a 
man  who  is  wholly  absorbed  in  the  study  of  classic  liter- 
ature ;  a  narration  of  idle,  gossipy  news  to  a  friend  who  is 
removed  by  noble  sentiment  from  the  sordid  things  of  life  ; 
or  the  discussion  of  the  economical  aspect  of  some  political 
question  with  some  friend  who  feels  no  interest  in  poli- 
tics, —  any  one  of  these  will  arouse  little  response.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  description  of  a  new  flower,  of  a 
strange  bird,  or  of  a  peculiar  insect,  which  we  have  noted, 
will  give  keen  pleasure  to  some  friend  of  scientific  turn  of 
mind ;  the  narration  of  some  incident  of  ethical  import 
will  delight  one  who  is  interested  in  moral  development ; 
and  the  discussion  of  the  political  significance  of  current 
events  may  arouse  the  deepest  interest  in  the  mind  of  one 
who  is  engrossed  in  the  study  of  political  economy. 

In  the  writing  of  any  friendly  letter^  ive  should  first  con- 
sult the  interest  of  the  reader,  then  strive  to  satisfy  that 
interest. 

EXERCISE 

Examine  the  following  topics.  Which  of  them  are  suitable 
to  be  discussed  iyi  letters  ?  Which  of  them  woidd  be  of  special 
interest  to  some  of  your  friends?  To  what  friend  would  you 
write  a  letter  on  the  first  topic  ?    On  the  third  topic  ?    On  the 


216  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

fifth  topic  ?  Why  ivould  you  choose  different  topics  in  ivriting 
to  these  different  friends  f  Who  of  your  friends  would  not 
he  interested  in  the  second  topic?  In  thefoui'th  topic?  In 
the  sixth  topic  ?     In  the  eighth  topic  ? 

1.  How  I  Entertained  a  Party  of  Girls  Yesterday  Afternoon. 

2.  A  Military  Review  at  Camp  Morton. 

3.  An  Incident  from  Bird  Life. 

4.  My  Favorite  Story. 

5.  Our  School  Organizations. 

6.  The  Latest  Scandal  in  Social  Circles. 

7.  Why  I  Object  to  Playing  Cards. 

8.  Some   Bad  Traits  in  the   Characters  of  Some  of  Our 
Mutual  Friends. 

9.  My  Experience  in  a  Storm  at  Sea. 

10.  A  Jolly  Coon  Hunt. 

11.  Morning  in  the  Country. 

12.  How  We  Made  a  Boat. 

13.  The  Mystery  of  the  Soul. 

14.  Total  Depravity. 

15.  Freedom  of  the  Will. 

16.  An  Incident  Taken  from  Life  in  the  Slums. 

17.  My  Trip  to  Westminster  Abbey. 

18.  Should  Chinese  Immigration  be  Restricted  ? 

Beginnings  and  Endings.  — Sucli  beginnings  as, 

Since  I  have  nothing  else  to  do,  I  thought  I  would  write 
you  a  few  lines, 

or, 

I  seat  myself  with  pen  in  hand,  to  let  you  know  that  I  am 
well  and  hope  you  are  the  same, 

not  only  are  stiff,  formal,  and  hackneyed,  but  they  are  in 
exceedingly  poor  taste.  The  first  beginning  is  uncom- 
plimentary to  the  reader,  whose  pleasure  is  likely  to  be 


LETTER  WRITING  217 

taken  away  by  the  thought  that  the  writer,  having  no 
other  alternative,  is  merely  seeking  diversion.  The  latter 
beginning  is  stupid  because  it  tells  something  which  the 
reader  already  knows  ;  the  receipt  of  the  letter  is  evidence 
of  the  fact  that  the  writer  was  "  seated  with  pen  in  hand." 

The  use  of  the  pronoun  7 at  the  beginning  of  a  letter  is 
sometimes  condemned  upon  the  ground  that  such  use  is 
egotistical,  and  that  it  is,  therefore,  in  bad  taste.  This 
prejudice  does  not  seem  to  be  well-founded,  as  an  ex- 
amination of  a  large  number  of  letters  written  by  famous 
literary  men  and  women  will  show.  Of  fifty  such  letters 
examined  by  the  authors  of  this  rhetoric,  twenty-three 
begin  with  I. 

The  essential  thing  to  be  remembered  is  that  the  begin- 
ning, like  every  other  part  of  the  letter,  should  be  natural, 
informal,  and  unhackneyed. 

An  inexperienced  writer  finds  it  even  more  difficult  to 
end  a  letter  properly.  In  the  first  place  he  finds  himself 
embarrassed  to  know  when  to  end  the  letter.  After  writ- 
ing all  that  he  thinks  will  really  interest  his  correspondent, 
he  still  casts  about  in  his  mind  for  something  else  to  say, 
lest  his  friend  may  suspect  a  lack  of  interest.  Then,  when 
he  has  drawn  his  letter  out  to  the  length  which  he  thinks 
is  proper,  he  closes  it  with  some  apologetic  statement ; 
such  as, 

Since  I  can  think  of  nothing  else  to  say,  I  must  close, 
or. 

As  the  dinner  bell  is  ringing,  etc., 
or. 

As  the  postman  is  now  coming,  I  must  stop  writing  for  this 
time. 
Endings  of  this  sort,  growing  out  of  an  awkward,  ill-bred 


218  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

habit  of  apologizing  for  everything,  are  in  very  bad  taste, 
and  should  be  avoided.  The  good  letter-writer,  when  he 
has  said  all  he  has  to  say,  brings  his  letter  to  a  close  with- 
out any  apology. 

Again,  the  unskilled  writer,  when  he  runs  the  ending  of 
his  letter  over  into  the  subscription,  is  likely  to  commit 
serious  errors  in  grammar,  because  he  fails  to  recognize 
that  the  subscription  should  grammatically  complete  the 
statement  begun  in  the  last  part  of  the  body.  For  in- 
stance, if  the  last  group  of  words  in  the  body  begins  with 
a  participle  or  with  a  preposition,  the  illiterate  writer  is 
likely  to  omit  the  statement  altogether,  leaving  only  a 
phrase,  which  does  not  grammatically  fit  into  the  subscrip- 
tion.    Such  endings  as. 

Hoping  that  you  are  well, 

Sincerely  yours, 

With  kindest  regard  to  your  mother, 
Lovingly  yours, 

are,  as  can  readily  be  seen,  ungrammatical,  because  there 
is  no  statement  made.  By  adding  to  these  phrases  in  the 
body,  the  statement,  "  I  remain  "  or  "  I  am,"  we  supply  the 
necessary  connection  between  the  body  of  the  letter  and 
the  subscription. 

Note.  —  Although  many  good  writers  run  the  body  of  the  letter  over 
into  the  subscription,  a  greater  number  keep  them  separate.  A  complete 
statement  closing  the  body  of  the  letter  is  preferable  to  the  "run-over 
ending"  because  it  is  less  formal  and  less  hackneyed. 

EXERCISES 

T,  Examine  the  following  ber/inninqs  and  endings  of  letters. 
Which  are  infonnal  and  in  good  taste  ?      Which  are  stiff  and 


LETTER   WRITING  219 

hackneyed?      Which  endings  are  not  grammatically  united 
with  the  subscription  ? 

1.  As  I  can  think  of  no  other  way  of  employing  these  spare 
moments,  I  have  conohided  to  write  to  you. 

2.  I  take  my  pen  in  hand  to  write  you  a  few  lines. 

3.  You  will  doubtless  be  surprised  to  hear  from  me,  but,  as 
it  is  raining  so  that  I  can  do  nothing  else,  I  shall  take  this 
opportunity  of  answering  your  last  letter. 

4.  Your  last  letter  has  given  much  pleasure. 

5.  How  I  wish  you  might  have  been  with  us  last  week. 

6.  I  have  just  returned  from  a  delightful  walk  along  a 
country  road. 

7.  Since  you  have  given  me  such  an  interesting  account  of 
your  first  day  in  high  school,  I  am  going  to  tell  you  something 
about  our  life  here  in  the  academy. 

8.  Here  we  are  in  the  quaint  old  city  of  Athens. 

9.  So  many  things  of  interest  have  happened  here  in  the 
last  week,  that  I  cannot  wait  until  you  come  home  to  tell  you 
about  them. 

10.  So  you  have  decided  to  become  a  civil  engineer  ? 

11.  I  seize  this  opportunity  of  writing  you  a  few  lines. 

12.  My  failure  to  answer  your  letter  sooner  is  due  to  pure 
negligence. 

13.  Well,  as  I  can  think  of  no  more  to  say,  I  will  close. 
Good-by. 

14.  As  it  is  now  almost  bed-time  I  must  stop  writing  for  the 
present. 

15.  You  are  doubtless  already  tired  of  this  letter,  so  I  shall 
quit  for  this  time. 

16.  Mother  is  calling  me  to  do  some  work,  so  I  must  bring 
this  letter  to  a  close. 

17.  Hoping  that  you  are  well, 

Yours  truly, 

18.  With  kindest  regards  to  your  mother, 

Lovingly  yours, 


220  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

19.  Trusting  that  I  may  hear  from  you  soon, 

Sincerely  yours, 

20.  A\'ith  true  love  and  sympathy,  I  am, 

Aifectionately  yours, 

21.  Be  careful  of  your  health  and  continue  to  love  me  as 

ever. 

Faithfully  yours, 

22.  When  you  write  again,  tell  me  all  about  yourself  and 
about  your  work. 

Lovingly  yours, 

23.  Please  remember  me  kindly  to  each  member  of  your 
family,  and  believe  me, 

Always  cordially  yours, 

24.  This  last  proof  of  your  friendship  fills  my  heart  with 
genuine  pleasure. 

Lovingly  yours, 

25.  All  these  trials  you  will  bear  bravely,  I  know.  With 
deepest  sympathy,  I  am. 

Faithfully  yours, 

n.  The  following  letter  tvas  written  to  the  school  children 
of  JndianapoUs  hy  the  well-known  author^  Meredith  Nichol- 
son. Has  Mr.  Nicholson  cliosen  a  topic  interesting  to  his 
readers  ?  Is  he  in  sympathy  with  school  children  ?  Does 
he  keep  his  readers  in  mind  throughout  the  letter?  Which 
pronoun  does  he  use  oftener,  I  or  you  ?  Does  he  make  you 
see  vividly  ivhat  he  has  seen  at  Fort  Myer  ?  If  so,  hoiv  does 
he  do  it?  (^Note  the  use  of  well-chosen  action  words  and 
ivell-chosen  adjectives  and  adverbs.^  Is  his  style  formal  or 
informal?      Grivefour  reasons  for  calling  this  letter  excellent. 

Indianapolis,  April  2,  190G. 
My  dear  Children  : 

Not  long  ago  I  witnessed  from  the  gallery  of  the  drill  hall 
at  Fort  Myer,  Virginia,  a  splendid  exhibition  of  the  efficiency 


LETTER   WRITING  221 

of  American  soldiers.  The  officer  commanding  sat  upon  his 
horse  and  blew  a  whistle  instead  of  shouting  his  commands, 
and  the  troopers  charged  and  wheeled  by  twos  and  fours  and 
then,  time  and  again,  galloped  in  a  single  unwavering  line 
straight  at  the  spectators,  with  the  rush  and  sweep  of  a  great 
wave  upon  a  broad  beach.  You  may  be  sure  that  at  every 
charge  we  all  drew  back  and  waited  breathlessly  for  the  quick 
little  pipe  of  the  officer's  whistle  to  turn  the  line  and  send  it 
safely  past  our  balcony.  The  troopers  rode  standing  on  their 
horses;  they  jumped  off  and  on;  they  leaped  hurdles  and 
picked  up  fallen  comrades  with  the  horses  still  plunging  for- 
ward—  these  and  a  hundred  other  things  until  our  eyes  were 
tired. 

Then  the  cavalrymen  rode  away  and  the  artillerymen  gave 
an  exhibition  of  skill  equally  thrilling.  They  galloped  about 
with  heavy  field  pieces  ;  paused  to  detach  the  horses ;  loaded 
and  fired,  and  then  before  the  smoke  cleared  away,  click ! 
snap  !  and  off  they  went  again,  and  Ave  were  wondering  how 
they  ever  managed  to  graze  the  walls  at  the  corners  without 
smashing  them  with  the  cannon  wheels.  ISText  the  soldiers 
drove  stakes  in  the  ground  and  repeated  the  movements  within 
a  smaller  area  to  show  how  closely  they  could  calculate  the 
turns.  It  was  all  most  interesting  and  exciting  —  better  by 
far  than  any  horsemanship  I  ever  saw  in  a  circus. 

Now  it  seems  to  me  that  in  writing  this  wonderful  language 
of  ours,  you  and  I  may  profitably  study  the  methods  of  the 
drill  officer.  Words  are  soldiers.  The  stakes  driven  down  for 
guidance  are  the  rules  of  grammar.  We  are  the  captains  who 
order  the  words  into  line ;  and  if  we  have  gone  to  school  to 
General  Rhetoric,  we  take  an  honest  pride  in  drilling  words  to 
march  and  ride  with  the  grace,  rhythm,  and  force  of  perfect 
soldiers.  Have  a  care  lest  clumsy  recruits  spoil  your  line ; 
and  when  you  find  one,  send  him  promptly  to  the  rear.  You 
must  be  master,  studying  the  strength  and  power  of  your  army 
of  words,  and  never  wielding  it  carelessly  or  accepting  from  it 


222  COMPOSITION   Ax'^JD   RHETORIC 

any  service  that  is  not  the  best  of  which  it  is  capable.     With 
best  wishes,  I  am, 

Sincerely  your  friend, 

Meredith  Nicholson. 

Replies  to  Friendly  Letters.  —  In  replying  to  a  friendly 
letter  the  good  writer  keeps  in  mind  not  only  the  friend 
to  whom  he  is  writing,  but  also  the  letter  which  he  is  an- 
swering. He  courteously  answers  the  questions  which 
have  been  asked,  and  then  proceeds  to  the  discussion  of 
new  topics  which  he  thinks  will  be  of  interest  to  his 
friend. 

EXERCISES 

I.  The  following  letters  ivere  tvritteti  hy  ninth-y ear  pupils 
in  reply  to  3fr.  JYicJiolson's  letter.  Examine  them  carefully 
and  tell  ivhich  are  true  replies.  Which  one  is  unworthy  to 
be  called  a  reply  ?  What  essential  of  a  good  reply  is  lack- 
ing in  each  one  f  Which  pupil  has  kept  in  mind  the  eyitire 
letter  to  ivhich  he  is  replying?  Which  pupils  have  kept 
only  part  of  the  letter  in  mind?  Which  have  seen  the  real 
point  in  Mr.  Nicholson  s  letter  ?  Which  have  introduced 
new  topics  into  their  letters?  Which  show  most  individu- 
ality?    Which  letter  on  the  whole  do  you  consider  the  best? 

Shortrirge  High  School, 
Indianapolis,  May  12,  1906. 
My  DEAR  Mr.  Nicholson  : 

I  have  just  finished  reading  your  interesting  letter  describ- 
ing your  recent  visit  to  Fort  Myer.  Are  not  the  soldiers  of 
this  country  of  ours  fine  fellows  ?  It  seems  to  me,  though, 
that  such  training  would  turn  the  soldiers  completely  into 
machines. 

But  let  us  turn  away  from  such  thoughts  and  turn  to  wliat 
seems  to  me  more  delightful  —  to  dreams  of  a  cool  swimming 


LETTER   WRITING  223 

pool  or  a  shady  spot  on  a  mossy  rock,  where  we  may  sit  and 
fish  all  through  these  fine  spring  days.  These  dreams  are  a 
thousand  times  happier  to  me  on  this  warm  day  than  visions 
of  plunging  cavalry,  sweating  artillerymen,  and  toiling  in- 
fantry. 

If  it  is  pleasing  to  you  to  wander  in  the  country,  to  do 
nothing  but  rest  for  a  solid  day,  or  to  take  a  dip  in  a  quiet 
pool  where  you  can  turn  over  on  your  back,  open  your  eyes, 
and,  as  you  float  down  the  river,  watch  the  clouds  go  drifting 
by  overhead  —  if  these  pastimes  are  pleasant  to  you,  I  give 
you  the  hearty  invitation  which  nature  extends  to  all  at  this 
time  of  year,  to  come  out  with  us  and  be  a  boy  among  boys. 

Admiringly  yours, 

Ralph  Decker. 

Indianapolis,  Ind.,  May  12,  1906. 
My  dear  Mr.  Nicholson  : 

As  I  am  always  interested  in  anything  pertaining  to  the 
army,  I  enjoyed  your  letter  very  much,  indeed.  There  are 
two  things,  which,  when  I  see  or  hear  them,  inspire  me  to  do 
greater  things,  even  if  it  is  such  a  small  thing  as  to  work 
harder  in  school  or  to  practice  my  music  more ;  these 
"inspirers"  are  a  brass  band  and  a  company  of  soldiers. 
Some  people  may  be  indifferent  to  such  ordinary  music,  and 
some  may  not  be  moved  by  military  display;  but  with  me  it 
is  different.  Every  time  I  hear  a  brass  band,  I  sit  quite  still 
and  do  not  feel  any  inclination  to  laugh  or  talk,  and  I  am 
filled  with  awe,  in  the  same  way,  whenever  I  see  a  body  of 
soldiers.  The  very  way  they  move  is  wonderful ;  it  is  not  the 
movement  of  one  man  alone  biit  of  the  whole  company.  Each 
foot  moving  with  all  the  others  and  all  the  muscles  working 
at  one  time,  make  the  soldiers  appear  as  one  great  body. 

In  good  English  it  is  practically  the  same  ;  every  word  is 
just  what  and  where  it  ought  to  be ;  the  line  is  not  complete 
without  it.     If  a  word  in  English  is  out  of  place,  it  is  like  the 


224  cxjMrosiTiON  and. rhetoric 

man  who  does  not  keep  step  with  the  vest  of  the  company  and 
who  thus  spoils  the  effect  of  tlie  wliole  line.  A  great  many  of 
the  laggards  which  spoil  the  lines  here  at  Shortridge  are 
"  don'ts,"  "can'ts,"  and  "  aiu'ts." 

Hoping  that  you  Avill  come  to  review  our  troops  soon,  I  am, 

Your  friend, 

Catharixe  Tinsley. 

2215  E.  Michigan  Street, 
Indianapolis,  Ind., 
May  15,  1906. 
My  dear  Friend  : 

I  heard  my  friends  say  that  when  you  were  a  boy  you 
attended  Indianapolis  schools,  and  perhaps  it  will  interest  you 
to  learn  what  we  study  now.  In  public  school  we  study  various 
things,  some  of  them  being  reading,  history,  art,  arithmetic, 
grammar,  and  spelling.  My  favorite  subjects  were  spelling, 
history,  and  arithmetic.  On  these  subjects  I  generally  receiv^ed 
A  — ,  but  never  lower  than  B  — . 

Now,  as  I  am  not  any  longer  attending  public  school,  but 
high  school,  I  do  not  study  the  long-loved  subjects  mentioned 
above.  My  favorite  subject  now  is  algebra.  Besides  algebra, 
I  study  latin  and  english,  which  I  do  not  like  very  much,  but  I 
hope  in  the  future  I  will  like  them  better. 

Hoping  to  hear  from  you  Soon,  I  am, 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Lillian  Kellermyer. 

II.  Examine  and  criticise  the  following  letters  written  hy 
ninth-year  pupils.  Apply  the  following  principles  of  good 
letter  writing  and  decide  which  letters  are  best. 

1.  A  good  friendly  letter  is  informal  and  full  of  the 
individuality  of  the  writer. 

2.  The  writer  keeps  in  mind  the  person  to  whom  the 
letter  is  written,  and  discusses  topics  which  are  of  special 
interest  to  that  person. 


LETTER   WRITING  225 

3.  He  makes  his  thoughts,  feelings,  and  experiences 
vivid  to  his  reader. 

4.  If  he  is  writing  in  reply,  he  makes  courteous  refer- 
ence to  topics  discussed  in  the  letter  received,  answers  all 
questions"  which  have  been  asked,  and  then  proceeds  to 
discuss  new  topics  of  interest  to  his  friend. 

3134  Central  Ave., 
Chicago,  III., 
Oct.  16,  1906. 
Dear  Florence, 

Your  nice  long  letter  came  to  me  yesterday.  Indeed  you 
need  not  feel  sorry  for  me  because  our  crowded  house  has  driven 
me  to  the  attic.  Let  me  tell  you  about  my  room.  It  is  snuggled 
into  a  wing  of  the  attic  where  the  sun  can  reach  it  at  all  hours 
of  the  day.  Three  pretty  windows  let  in  the  light  in  winter, 
and  the  fresh  air  and  warm  glow  in  summer.  The  floor,  which 
is  of  a  dark,  polished  hard  wood,  is  covered  by  a  large  rag 
carpet.  Stretching  across  one  end,  is  a  cheerful  fireplace  with 
a  plain,  old-fashioned  shelf  above  to  serve  as  my  mantel.  On 
this  mantel  is  a  single  blue  jar,  the  one  which  grandmother 
kept  sugar  plums  in.  In  fact  all  of  my  things  belonged  to 
grandmother.  Her  high  four-posted  cherry-wood  bed,  her 
dresser  with  its  long  oval  glass  and  tiny  drawers,  and  her  little 
square  top  desk  on  which  she  wrote  her  first  letter  to  grand- 
father, and  last  of  all  two  little  chairs,  one  a  stiff  high-backed 
chair,  the  other  a  little  low  willow  rocking  chair.  But  you 
would  really  have  to  live  in  my  room  to  know  how  comfortable 
and  warm  it  is,  and  to  feel  how  delightful  it  is  to  hear  the  log 
crackling  behind  me  as  I  lounge  on  the  bed  reading  some  fa- 
vorite book,  or  wondering  why  little  girls  nowadays  do  not 
patch  bright  colored  quilts  like  the  one  on  my  bed.  Often  I 
gaze  into  grandmother's  picture  in  its  brown  frame  and  think 
how  she  would  laugh  to  see  her  hooped  skirts  and  short  waist. 
So  you  see  I  like  my  attic  room.    When  you  write,  describe 

Q 


226  coMrosiTioN  and  rhetoric 

your  room  to  me,  for  I  sliall  be  so  interested  to  know  liow  you 

like  to  live  in  a  flat. 

Lovingly  your  fi-iend, 

Ruth. 

Eisenach,  Germany, 
Aug.  7,  1906. 
Dear  Carol, 

Germany  certainly  is  a  beautiful  country  !  Such  forests  and 
such  beautiful  mountains  !  About  seven  o'clock  this  morning, 
mother  and  I  started  out  on  the  road  that  leads  to  the  Wartburg. 
It  was  a  beautiful  day,  the  birds  were  singing,  the  sun  was 
shining  brightly,  flowers  were  growing  all  along  the  road,  and 
all  nature  seemed  to  be  at  its  best.  Soon  we  came  to  where  the 
road  branched.  Signboards  told  us  that  one  road  was  "Der 
Fuhrweg,"and  the  other  "Der  kurze  Weg."  We  saw  that  one 
wound  around  the  mountain,  while  the  other  went  almost 
directly  up  to  its  summit.  We  chose  the  latter,  for  it  was 
nearly  three  miles  shorter  than  the  other  road,  and  led  right 
through  the  dense  forest  of  pines.  How  fragrant  they  smelt 
and  how  cool  the  air  was !  No  wonder  they  call  this  forest  the 
"  Schwartzwald  "  or  Black  Forest,  for  it  is  as  dark  as  night  among 
the  trees.  Wild  flowers  grew  wherever  a  ray  of  sunlight  could 
find  its  way  through  the  foliage,  and  holly  grew  in  abundance 
all  round. 

But  the  forest  was  losing  its  charms  for  us,  for  we  were 
getting  dreadfully  tired.  The  summit  seemed  as  far  off  as 
ever,  and  we  could  see  nothing  at  all  but  pines,  pines,  pines. 
We  could  not  even  look  below  us,  for  they  blocked  our  view. 
We  climbed  for  nearly  two  hours  and  then  sank  exhausted  on  a 
bench  at  the  top.  We  were  well  rewarded  for  our  efforts,  how- 
ever; for  from  that  lofty  height  we  could  see  a  sight  well  worth 
the  trouble  of  getting  up.  Far,  far  below  us  lay  the  village, 
while  to  our  right  stretched  the  liazy  mountains,  all  clothed  in 
verdure ;  to  our  left,  barely  visible  among  the  trees,  was  the 
white  statue  of  a  celebrated  German.     I  cannot  give  the  view 


LETTER    WRITING  227 

full  credit  in  this  letter.  You  must  some  day  come  yourself 
and  see  it.  They  say  I  shall  see  still  more  beautiful  scenery 
in  Switzerland,  but  I  hardly  think  it  possible. 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Margaret  Metzger. 

Pendleton,  Oregon, 
October  16,  1906. 
My  dear  Friend  : 

As  you  are  interested  in  birds  and  their  nests,  I  thought 
that  you  would  like  to  hear  about  a  strange  nest  which  I 
found  one  day  last  summer.  It  was  the  nest  of  the  ruby- 
throated  humming  bird,  the  smallest  of  our  feathered  neigh- 
bors. The  site  chosen  for  this  aerial  dwelling  was  an  oak 
limb  thirty  feet  from  the  ground.  From  the  study  of  the 
tiny  home  I  learned  that  its  builder  had  first  collected  a 
quantity  of  plant  fiber  and  thistle  down.  This  he  wove 
with  his  bill  into  a  cup-shaped  basket  about  an  inch  in 
diameter.  Then,  for  concealment  and  decoration,  he  covered 
the  outside  with  lichens,  making  the  nest  appear  to  be  a 
growth  on  the  tree.  When  I  examined  the  nest,  I  wondered 
that  such  a  diminutive  creature  could  build  so  beautiful  a 
home.  The  next  time  you  come  to  see  me,  I  shall  be  glad 
to  show  it  to  you,  as  I  consider  it  a  valuable  addition  to 
my  collection. 

I  hope  you  are  well  and  will  be  able  to  visit  me  next  vaca- 
tion. 

Your  loving  friend, 

John  F.  McBride. 

III.  Examine  the  following  letters^  and  give  four  reasons 
why  they  may  he  called  excellent. 

IV.  Write  a  reply  to  each  of  these  letters.  (^Remember 
what  constitutes  a  true  reply. ^  Introduce  some  neiv  topic 
zvhich  you  think  would  interest  Dr.  Van  Dyke,  Miss  Stevens., 
or  Mrs.  Wiggin. 


228  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

Seal  Harbor,  Me. 
My  dear  young  Friends: 

I  have  just  returned  from  salmon  fishing  in  Canada;  and 
none  of  the  big  fish  caught  there  gave  me  so  much  pleasure  as 
the  throe  little  letters  which  I  find  here  from  you,  inclosing 
copies  of  the  programme  for  the  graduating  exercises  of  your 
class  in  school  No.  4.  If  it  had  been  possible  for  me  to  be 
hidden  away  among  the  audience  on  June  14,  and  to  listen  to 
your  recitation  of  the  stories  and  poems,  it  would  have  made 
me  proud  and  happy  to  find  thoughts  and  words  of  mine  in  the 
hearts  of  the  school  children  of  America.  For  you  know,  the 
future  —  the  Big  Future  —  is  yours.  You  are  the  men  and 
women  of  to-morrow.  Already  some  of  you  are  beginning 
to  exercise  that  influence  upon  the  people  around  you,  which  is 
to  be  the  molding  force  of  the  years  to  come.  To  bring  a 
message  to  you  is  to  bring  a  message  to  the  world.  That  is 
why  I  am  heartily  glad  if  you  have  found  anything  to  like  in 
my  books. 

Some  of  you,  perhaps,  are  beginning  to  write  for  your- 
selves. And  all  of  you,  I  hope,  are  reading  for  yourselves. 
Will  you  take  a  word  of  friendly  counsel  from  an  old  comrade, 
about  writing  and  reading? 

It  is  all  right  to  do  part  of  your  reading  for  pleasure.  But 
there  are  different  kinds  of  pleasure ;  and  the  best  makes 
you  stronger  and  better  when  you  have  enjoyed  it.  You  can 
tell  about  books,  just  as  easily  as  about  any  other  kind  of  food, 
whether  they  strengthen  or  weaken  you. 

The  best  things  to  write  about  are  those  that  you  really 
know  —  something  that  you  have  seen,  or  heard,  or  felt,  or 
imagined,  or  thought  out  for  yourself.  A  little  bit  of  real 
description  is  worth  imitation  ;  and  a  plain  thought  clearly 
expressed  is  better  than  a  borrowed  idea  dressed  out  in  long- 
tailed  words.  If  you  want  to  learn  how  to  write  good  English, 
you  must  read  the  works  of  the  men  who  have  taken  pains  to 
master  the  art  of  expression  —  men  who  write  with  clearness, 


LETTER  WRITING  229 

dignity,  force,  and  precision ;  and  this  kind  of  work  you  will 
find  more  easily  in  the  best  books  than  in  the  newspapers  and 
magazines.  But  I  hope  you'll  remember  that  no  mere  skill  in 
writing  counts  for  much,  unless  there's  a  strong,  intelligent, 
honorable  person  behind  it.  A  fine  style  is  of  no  real  value 
unless  you  have  something  to  say. 

Whatever  you  learn  in  school,  I  hope  you'll  find  good  use 
for  in  the  world.  And  whatever"  you  do  in  the  world,  I  hope 
you'll  never  have  reason  to  be  ashamed  of.  I  hope  you'll 
never  be  ashamed  of  your  finer  feelings,  your  ideals,  your 
beliefs.  For  if  you  are  ashamed  of  them,  they'll  fly  away 
from  you.  But  if  you  honor  them,  they'll  stay  with  you  and 
bring  you  to  honor.  And  this  is  the  sincere  wish  of  the 
writer  whose  books  you  read  at  school  this  year. 

Faithfully  yours, 

Henry  van  Dyke. 

New  York,  November  10,  1905. 
Dear  Boys  and  Girls  : 

I  had  planned  to  write  and  tell  you  all  about  this  wonder- 
ful city ;  but  the  other  day  I  had  occasion  to  visit  the  great 
Columbia  library,  where  I  chanced  upon  a  book  on  the  sights 
of  New  York,  that  looked  like  the  unabridged  dictionary.  I 
decided  that,  perhaps,  it  would  not  be  wise  to  attempt  a  de- 
scription of  this  big  world  of  New  York  in  the  compass  of  a 
letter.  Besides,  you  expect  to  come  here  and  see  it  for  your- 
self some  day. 

The  crowds,  the  bustle  and  hurry  of  traffic,  the  great  "  sky- 
scraper," the  wonderful  underground  railroad,  the  fine  art 
galleries,  the  beautiful  parks,  the  ships  in  the  harbor,  are  an 
endless  source  of  wonder,  and  I  have  met  people  who  have  been 
living  here  for  three  or  four  years  and  are  still  busy  sight- 
seeing. 

I  wish  that  you  could  see  the  view  from  my  window. 
Below  is  the  beautiful  Hudson  River ;  and  those  high  rugged 


230  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

hills  on  the  opposite  shore  are  the  Palisades,  which  stretch 
away  to  the  north  until  they  merge  in  the  purple  haze  of 
the  distance.  To-day  I  am  spending  a  great  deal  of  time  at 
the  window,  for  twelve  of  the  great  white  battleships  of  the 
United  States  are  riding  at  anchor  side  by  side  with  the 
gray  warships  of  England.  Prince  Louis  of  Battenberg, 
the  English  admiral,  is  the  guest  of  the  city,  and  for  once 
those  grim  old  sea  monsters  are  the  messengers  of  peace 
and  good  will. 

I  heard  Dr.  Henry  van  ])yke,  of  Princeton  University, 
preach  on  Sunday  last.  Do  you  know  his  '*  A  Handful  of  Clay," 
and  that  beautiful  little  prose-poem,  "  The  Footpath  to  Peace  "? 
Some  of  his  most  delightful  stories  are  in  a  book  called  "  The 
Blue  Flower." 

One  afternoon  I  visited  the  picture  galleries  of  the  Metro- 
politan Art  iVIuseum,  where  I  saw  two  paintings  by  Corot 
and  that  wonderful  picture,  "  The  Horse  Fair,"  Kosa  Bonheur, 
besides  many  others  by  the  world's  masters. 

Perhaps  you  have  had  just  as  good  a  time  staying  at 
home.  Anything  that  you  can  tell  me  of  yourself  will  be 
interesting  to 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Katuerine  Stevens. 

Indianapolis,  Indiana, 

January  3,  1906. 
Dear  Boys  and  Girls  : 

Some  one  has  said  that  only  after  we  have  seen  them 
painted  do  we  love  the  common  things  about  us,  and  I  have 
been  thinking  that  this  is  especially  true  of  roads  and  streets. 
How  many  of  you,  I  wonder,  have  ever  really  appreciated  the 
beauty  of  a  woodland  path  until  after  you  had  seen  one  in  a 
beautiful  picture  or  had  tried  to  put  one  into  one  of  your  own 
little  color  landscapes  ? 

The  prettiest  roads,  the  ones  which  live  longest  in  our  mem- 
ories, are  never  straight  nor  level.     I  am  thinking  now  of  a 


LETTER   WRITING  231 

long  road  which,  in  its  course,  makes  the  principal  street  of  a 
quaint  New  England  village.  I  saw  it  first  one  autumn  morn- 
ing long  ago.  The  mists  still  hung  like  a  silver  veil  in  the 
distance,  but  the  sun  shone  through  and  lightened  the  trees 
and  rocks.  Close  at  hand  were  groups  of  happy  children  play- 
ing, while  through  the  open  doors  of  the  cottages  we  heard  the 
low  singing  voices  of  the  mothers  at  their  work. 

Beyond  the  village  we  paused  in  our  walk  to  gather  the 
nuts  of  the  hazelwood  which  grew  close  to  the  roadside.  The 
music  of  birds  and  the  soft  sound  of  distant  hurrying  waters 
came  to  our  ears;  and  fragrance  of  flowers  and  of  ripening 
fruit  filled  the  air ;  in  our  hearts  there  was  sweet  content. 

Have  you  not  seen  a  road  in  some  respects  like  this  one  ? 
Perhaps  you  saw  it  in  another  season  or  in  another  part  of 
our  country  ;  perhaps  you  rode  instead  of  walked ;  you  may 
have  seen  it  in  a  picture  or  traveled  it  in  a  book.  Write  me 
about  it. 

Your  sincere  friend, 

Katherine  Stevens. 

New  York,  December  6,  1904. 
My  dear  Boys  and  Girls  : 

I  wish  I  might  talk  to  you  instead  of  writing ;  for,  if  I  could 
see  you  once  before  me,  fair  and  dark,  little  and  big,  short  and 
tall,  I  should  very  quickly  know  what  you  would  like  to  hear. 
Indianapolis,  however,  is  a  long  distance  from  New  York,  and 
we  must  do  as  well  as  we  can,  under  the  circumstances,  with 
pen  and  paper. 

You  have  found  out  long  before  this,  I  am  sure,  how  easily 
talk  trips  off  the  tongue,  and  how  it  hobbles  and  limps  when 
we  try  to  write  it  down.  Yet,  difficult  though  it  may  be,  we 
must  all  learn  how  to  do  it,  for  it  is  just  this  "  learning  how  " 
which  makes  possible  all  the  beautiful  letters  between  friends, 
all  the  stories  which  seem  so  real,  and  all  the  poetry  that 
sounds  like  music  in  our  ears. 


232  COMPOSITION   AXD   RHETORIC 

Some  one  has  told  me  that  you  have  studied  two  volumes 
of  poetry  which  my  sister  and  I  have  put  together  for  young 
people,  —  "  Golden  Numbers  "  and  "  The  Posey  Ring."  We 
made  the  books  because  we  loved  the  poems  ourselves,  and 
wanted  every  boy  and  girl  in  the  land  to  know  and  love 
them,  too. 

I  should  be  so  glad  to  hear  the  names  of  your  favorites,  and 
why  you  liked  some  poems  more  than  others.  It  is  easy  to 
love  a  thing,  and  yet  not  be  able  to  tell  why,  but  try  to  see  if 
you  can  put  your  feelings  into  words. 

It  would  be  delightful  for  me,  too,  supposing  you  have  read 
any  of  my  stories,  if  you  would  tell  me  the  title  of  the  one  you 
like  best.  "  The  Birds'  Christmas  Carol,"  "  Rebecca,"  "  Timo- 
thy's Quest,"  ''Polly  Oliver's  Problem,"  "  The  Story  of  Patsy," 
—  all  have  more  in  them  to  interest  girls  than  boys ;  indeed, 
my  book  for  boys  is  still  to  be  written.  I  do  not  dare  ask 
suggestions  for  it,  however,  lest  Indians,  bears,  wolves,  desert 
islands,  cannibals,  shipwrecks,  buried  treasure,  and  other  sub- 
jects about  which  I  know  nothing  be  recommended  to  me  by 
every  post. 

Good-by  to  you,  then,  girls,  for  whom  I  have  written,  and 
boys,  for  whom  I  am  still  to  write. 

Yours  affectionately, 

Kate  Douglas  Wiggin. 

INVITATIONS  AND  OTHER  SOCIAL  NOTES 

Informal  Notes 

1 
My  dear  Alexander, 

Harry  and  I  are  going  to  the  woods  this  afternoon  to  gather 
walnuts  and  hickory  nuts.  We  want  you  to  join  us.  Please 
come,  won't  you  ?     We  start  from  home  at  ten  o'clock. 

Hastily, 

Robert. 


LETTER   WRITING  233 


My  dear  Miss  Gokhner: 

Will  you  kindly  excuse  Marie's  failure  to  prepare  her  com- 
position this  morning  ?  An  aching  tooth  has  made  it  necessary 
for  her  to  go  to  the  dentist. 

Sincerely  yours, 

(Mrs.)  Sarah  A.  Gifford. 
Tuesday,  Feb.  22. 

3 

Dear  Egbert, 

It  was  kind  of  you  to  invite  me  to  go  with  you  and  Harry 
to  the  woods.     I  shall  be  glad  to  go. 

Your  chum  and  cousin, 

Alexander. 
Saturday,  October  8. 

Formal  Notes 

1 

Mrs.  A.  R.  Allard  requests  the  pleasure  of  Miss  Frieda 
Hitz's  presence  at  a  Halloween  party  to  be  given  next  Wednes- 
day evening  from  eight  to  eleven. 

2244  North  Elm  Street, 
Thursday,  October  the  twenty-fifth. 

2 

Miss  Frieda  Hitz  accepts  with  pleasure  Mrs.  Allard's  kind 
invitation  for  next  Wednesday  evening. 

847  Fletcher  Avenue, 
Saturday,  October  the  twenty-sixth. 

3 
Will  Miss  Smith  kindly  permit  Irene  Pritch  to  add  to  her 
list  of  subjects  the  study  of  German?     By  so  doing  she  will 
greatly  oblige  Irene's  father,  J.  A.  Pritch. 

2010  North  Meridian  Street, 
September  the  twenty-fourth. 


234  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  examininf^  the  preceding  forms,  you  will   observe: 

1.  That  the  first  three  notes  are  written  in  the  informal, 
conversational  style  employed  in  friendly  letters. 

2.  That  in  these  informal  notes  the  salutation  and  the 
subscription  are  employed  just  as  they  are  in  friendly 
letters. 

3.  That  the  last  three  notes  are  written  in  formal  style, 
the  third  person  pronoun  being  employed  throughout. 

4.  That  in  these  formal  notes  the  salutation,  and  usually 
the  subscription,  are  omitted. 

5.  That  in  all  the  notes,  formal  and  informal,  the  date 
and  the  address  (the  address  is  often  omitted  in  informal 
notes)  are  written  at  the  end,  being  placed  in  the  lower 
left-hand  corner  of  the  sheet. 

EXERCISES 

I.     Write  an  informal  note : 

1.  Inviting  some  friend  to  spend  a  week  with  you  in  your 
summer  home. 

2.  Introducing  to  one  of  your  friends  some  boy  or  girl  who 
is  visiting  in  the  town  where  your  friend  lives. 

3.  Acknowledging  the  receipt  of  a  Christmas  or  a  birthday 
gift. 

4.  Apologizing  to  some  friend  whom  you  have  offended. 

5.  Explaining  to  your  teacher  your  failure  to  hand  in 
written  work  when  it  was  due. 

II.  Write  a  formal  invitation  to  an  acquaintance  to 
attend  a  five  o'clock  luncheon  at  your  liome. 

III.  Write  a  formal  note  of  accceptance  in  reply  to  the 
invitation  suggested  above. 

IV.  Write  a  formal  note  of  regret  in  reply  to  the  same 
invitation. 


LETTER  WRITING  235 

V,  Write  a  formal  note  tlianhmg  your  hostess  for  a  favor 
ivhieh  you  have  received  at  her  'party. 

VI.  Write  a  formal  note  requesting  your  'principal  to 
excuse  you  from  school  at  a  certain  hour. 

BUSINESS  LETTERS 

A  good  business  letter  is  clear,  correct,  definite,  and, 
though  formal  in  style,  courteous.  It  leads  up  rapidly  to 
the  business  point  and  contains  no  unnecessary  statements 
or  questions,  to  waste  the  time  of  the  reader.  If  it  is 
written  in  reply,  it  usually  begins  with  some  reference  to 
the  letter  received,  and  answers  definitely  all  questions 
which  have  been  asked.  It  omits  none  of  the  necessary 
items  in  the  heading,  in  the  address,  or  in  the  subscription. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Compare  the  two  letters  heloiv,  ivritteti  in  reply  to  the 
following  advertiseme7it :  Wanted  —  A  young  man  to  do 
clerical  work  in  office  at  'IIS  a  week  ;  high  school  grad- 
uate preferred;  state  qualifications  and  give  references. 
Address  Box  176,  Boston  Transcript. 

Which  of  the  replies  fulfills  the  requirements  of  a  good 
business  letter?  Why?  Criticise  the  reply  tvhich  violates 
the  requirements  of  a  good  business  letter. 

East  Tenth  St., 
City. 
Dear  Sirs: 

In  view  of  my  previous  successful  experience,  and  in  con- 
sideration of  my  rare  qualifications  to  fill  the  position  which 
you  so  kindly  offer,  and  which  I  hope  I  may  have  the  pleasure 
of  filling,  you  would  confer  a  great  favor  upon  me  by  consider- 
ing me  an  applicant  for  that  position. 


236  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

If  I  should  be  as  foi-tuiiate  as  to  secure  the  position,  I  should 
endeavor  so  far  as  within  nie  lies  to  perform  all  the  duties 
which  you  might  see  fit  to  impose  upon  me  as  an  official  in 
your  honored  service. 

Trusting  that  you  may  see  fit  to  select  me  —  unless,  perhaps, 
you  have  already  chosen  some  worthier  than  I — to  fill  the 
position  which  you  advertise, 


P.S.  I  can  furnish  good  references. 


Yours, 

J.  Stafford. 

J.  S. 


246  E.  Tenth  St.  City, 
Oct.  8,  1906. 
Box  176,  Boston  Transcript. 

Dear  Sirs  : 

I  should  like  to  be  considered  an  applicant  for  the  position 
which  you  advertised  in  "  The  Boston  Transcript "  of  Oct.  6.  I 
am  a  graduate  of  the  Boys'  Latin  High  School  of  this  city, 
having  finished  a  four  years'  course  there  in  1903,  with  an 
average  of  91%.  As  I  have  made  a  special  study  of  all  the 
subjects  included  in  the  commercial  course  offered  in  the  high 
school,  I  feel  sure  that  I  am  fitted  to  do  almost  any  kind  of 
clerical  work  that  you  may  require. 

During  my  summer  vacations  for  the  past  two  years  I  have 
been  employed  as  typewriter  and  stenographer  in  the  ofiice  of 
J.  A.  Richie  &  Son,  Tremont  Square. 

His  name,  and  the  following  others,  I  should  like  to  give 
as  references: 

Eev.  A.  J.  Buck,  Pastor  of  the  Central  Christian  Church; 
Mr.  G.  W.  Bass,  Supt.  of  City  Schools; 
Vinson  S.  Allen,  Judge  of  the  Superior  Court. 
Trusting  that  you. may  consider  my  application  favorably, 
I  am, 

Yours  truly, 

James  S.  Stafford. 


LETTER   WRITING  237 

II.  Criticise  the  foJlo/cin//  business  letters  and  give  reasons 
for  the  criticisms  ivhich  you  make  : 

1 

Brownsbcrg,  Cal. 
To  the  publishers  of  77;*?  Outlook. 

You  will  cliscontinue  my  subscription  to  your  paper  at  once. 

H.  Jones. 

2 

Miss  Spillman: 

I  cannot  grant  your  request.  I  am  too  busy  to  give  the 
matter  my  attention. 

Yours, 

Thos.  Ward, 

Supt.  of  Schools.  . 

3 

Mr.  Ryan  : 

I  have  made  application  for  a  position  as  stenographer  in 
office  of  A.  J.  Steele.  You  would  oblige  me  by  giving  me  a 
recommendation. 

Truly, 

F.  Hanvet, 

III.  Reivrite  the  foregoing  letters  iyi  proper  form.,  making 
them  more  definite  and  more  courteous. 

IV.  Write  business  letters  in  a  clear,  definite,  and  courte- 
ous style  in  accordance  with  the  following  suggestions. 

1.  A  letter  to  your  school  superintendent,  recommending  a 
friend  who  desires  a  position  as  teacher  in  your  schools. 

2.  A  letter  to  A.  L.  King  &  Company,  Boston,  Mass.,  order- 
ing a  list  of  books  for  your  school  library. 

3.  A  letter  to  the  manager  of  a  debating  team,  challenging 
his  team  to  a  debate  with  the  team  from  your  own  school. 


238  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

4.  A  letter  to  the  manager  of  a  football  team,  making  ar- 
rangements for  a  game  of  football. 

5.  A  letter  subscribing  for  a  magazine  or  a  newspaper. 

6.  A  letter  withdrawing  your  membership  from  some  organi- 
zation. 

7.  A  letter   declining   some  office  offered  to  you  by   some 
organization. 

8.  A  letter  to  the  registrar  of  some  college,  requesting  in- 
formation regarding  college  entrance  requirements. 


CHAPTER  VII 

FORMS    OF    DISCOURSE:     NARRATION,    DE- 
SCRIPTION,  EXPOSITION,   ARGUMENT 

The  aim  of  every  j^iece  of  composition  is  to  relate  a  suc- 
cession of  incidents  or  to  give  a  picture  or  to  unfold  or 
explain  an  idea,  or  to  prove  a  proposition.  These  differ- 
ent motives  give  rise  to  four  different  forms  of  discourse  ; 
namely,  narration,  description,  exposition,  and  argument. 

Narration,  the  simplest  and  most  natural  form  of  dis- 
course, deals  with  a  succession  of  incidents  bound  together 
either  by  their  chronological  order  or  by  the  logical  se- 
quence of  cause  and  effect. 

Stage  Coach;  Christmas  Day ;  Christmas  Dinner Irving. 

Lady  of  the  Lake.  —  Scott. 

Description,  dealing  with  objects  as  they  appear  at  a  sin- 
gle moment  in  repose,  is  intended  to  produce  in  the  mind 
of  the  reader  or  of  the  listener  the  same  impressions  of  the 
objects  which  he  would  get  from  the  objects  themselves. 

The  Oxus  River  and  its  surroundings:  Matthew  Arnold's 
Sohrab  and  Rustum. 

Carlyle's  description  of  Dante :  Hero  and  Hero-Worship. 

Irving's  description  of  a  fine  autumnal  day :  Tlie  Legend  of 
Sleepy  Hollow. 

Exposition,  unlike  narration  and  description,  deals  with 
ideas  rather  than  with  objects  and  has  for  its  aim  the 
unfolding  of  a  subject  in  such  a  way  that  the  relation 

239 


240  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

between   the  ideas  or  groups  of  ideas  belonging  to  the 
subject  is  clearly  manifest  to  the  listener  or  reader. 

Self-Reliance.  — Emerson. 

Argument,  dealing,  like  exposition,  with  ideas  in  logical 
sequence,  presents  these  ideas  in  the  aspect  of  proof  given 
in  support  of  some  proposition  which  the  writer  or  speaker 
wishes  to  force  upon  the  reader  or  listener. 

Conciliation  tcith  America.  —  Burke. 
Public  Duty  of  Educated  Men.  —  Curtis. 

Rarely  do  we  find  any  of  these  forms  existing  sepa- 
rately. In  a  selection  called  narrative  there  is  generally 
a  large  measure  of  imagery,  and  often  a  great  deal  of  ex- 
planation. In  exposition  and  in  argument,  too,  we  usually 
find  the  narrative  and  descriptive  element.  These  ele- 
ments are  introduced,  however,  to  subserve  the  purposes 
of  exposition  and  argument  —  that  is,  to  make  clearer  the 
relation  between  ideas  logically  connected,  or  to  offer  proof 
in  support  of  some  proposition.  In  Webster's  Bunker  Hill 
Monument,  for  instance,  which,  because  its  predominant 
motives  are  to  convince  the  intellect  and  persuade  the  will, 
is  classified  under  the  head  of  exposition  and  argument, 
we  find  a  narration  of  the  events  preceding  the  Battle  of 
Bunker  Hill ;  a  picture  of  Columbus  tossed  about  in  a 
storm-shattered  bark  struggling  against  a  rough  sea ;  an 
explanation  and  proofs  of  the  beneficent  results  of  the 
llevolutionary  War  upon  the  progress  of  the  world ;  and 
finally  a  direct  appeal  to  the  people  to  be  loyal  to  the 
trust  which  they  have  received  from  their  ancestors. 

Thus  we  see  that  while  all  the  forms  of  discourse  may 
be  employed  in  a  single  selection,  the  form  under  which 
any  selection  is  classified  depends  upon  the  ruling  motive 
in  the  mind  of  the  writer.     If  the  writer  wishes  primarily 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  241 

to  interest  his  readers  in  a  sequence  of  events,  he  may 
make  effective  use  o.f  description,  exposition,  and  argu- 
ment, but  he  must  make  them  merely  accessory,  to  heighten 
the  effect  of  the  action,  and  he  must  keep  them  subordinate 
to  the  story  itself.  Scott's  3Iarmion,  which  relates  a  suc- 
cession of  incidents  developed  in  accordance  with  the  laws 
of  cause  and  effect,  abounds  in  descriptions  of  persons, 
scenes,  and  actions,  and  in  exposition  of  the  moods  and 
motives  of  the  characters.  The  purpose  of  these  descrip- 
tions and  explanations  is  partly  to  make  clear  to  the 
reader  the  growth  of  the  plot  —  in  other  words,  to  supply 
the  connecting  links  between  the  separate  actions  in  a 
series.  The  roughness  of  the  mountain  path  leading  to 
Edinburgh  necessitates  the  choice  of  a  guide  who  proves 
to  be  an  important  factor  in  the  working  out  of  the  plot ; 
and  Marmion's  changeful  moods  lead  to  events  of  great 
consequence  in  the  unfolding  of  the  story ;  hence  the  de- 
scription of  the  scene  and  the  explanation  of  the  moods 
and  motives,  though  they  are  kept  subordinate  to  the  nar- 
rative, perform  a  vital  part  in  giving  to  the  story  the 
essential  quality  of  coherence. 

The  form  of  discourse  to  which,  any  composition  belongs  is 
determined  by  the  form  which  j^revails  in  the  composition. 

EXERCISE 

Examine  the  following  paragraphs  and  classify  them  ac- 
cording to  the  forms  of  discourse  prevailing  in  them.  In 
which  do  you  find  it  the  writer  s  main  purpose  to  relate  a 
succession  of  incidents?  In  ivhich  do  you  find  it  his  main 
purpose  to  tell  you  just  hoiv  something  looks  ?  In  tvhich  does 
he  unfold  or  explain  some  idea  which  toould  not  otherwise  be 
clear  ?  In  which  does  he  present  ideas  as  proof?  In  which 
does  he  exhort  to  action? 


242  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

1.  At  the  furtlier  extremity  of  a  narrow,  deep  cavern  in  the 
rock,  whose  length  appeared  much  extended  by  the  perspective 
and  the  nature  of  the  light  by  which  it  was  seen,  Avas  seated 
the  scout,  holding  a  blazing  knot  of  pine.  The  strong  glare  of 
the  fire  fell  full  upon  his  sturdy,  weather-beaten  countenance 
and  forest  attire,  lending  an  air  of  romantic  wildness  to  the 
aspect  of  an  individual,  who,  seen  by  the  sober  light  of  day, 
would  have  exhibited  the  peculiarities  of  a  man  remarkable 
for  the  strangeness  of  his  dress,  the  iroulike  inflexibility  of 
his  frame,  and  the  singular  compound  of  quick,  vigilant  sa- 
gacity, and  of  exquisite  simplicity,  that  by  turns  usurped  the 
possession  of  his  muscular  features.  At  a  little  distance  in 
advance  stood  Uncas,  his  whole  person  thrown  powerfully  into 
view.  The  travelers  anxiously  regarded  the  upright,  flexible 
figure  of  the  young  Mohican,  graceful  and  unrestrained  in  the 
attitudes  and  movements  of  nature.  Though  his  person  was 
more  than  usually  screened  by  a  green  and  fringed  hunting- 
shirt,  like  that  of  the  white  man,  there  was  no  concealment  to 
his  dark,  glancing,  fearless  eye,  alike  terrible  and  calm  ;  the 
bold  outline  of  his  high,  haughty  features,  pure  in  their  native 
red ;  or  to  the  dignified  elevation  of  his  receding  forehead,  to- 
gether with  all  the  finest  proportions  of  a  noble  head,  bared 
to  the  generous  scalping  tuft.  It  was  the  first  opportunity 
possessed  by  Duncan  and  his  companions  to  view  the  marked 
lineaments  of  either  of  their  Indian  attendants,  and  each  in- 
dividual of  the  party  felt  relieved  from  a  burden  of  doubt,  as 
the  proud  and  determined,  though  wild  expression  of  the  fea- 
tures of  the  young  warrior  forced  itself  on  their  notice. 

******* 

2.  "  Then  die  !  "  shouted  Magua,  hurling  his  tomahawk  with 
violence  at  the  unresisting  speaker,  and  gnashing  his  teeth 
with  a  rage  that  could  no  longer  be  bridled,  at  this  sudden  ex- 
hibition of  firmness  in  the  one  he  believed  the  weakest  of  the 
party.  The  ax  cleaved  the  air  in  front  of  Heyward,  and  cut- 
ting some  of  the  flowing  ringlets  of  Alice,  quivered  in  the  tree 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  243 

above  her  head.  The  sight  maddened  Duncan  to  desperation. 
Collecting  all  his  energies  in  one  effort,  he  snapped  the  twigs 
which  bound  him  and  rushed  upon  another  savage,  who  was 
preparing  with  loud  yells  and  a  more  deliberate  aim  to  repeat 
the  blow.  They  encountered,  grappled,  and  fell  to  the  earth 
together.  The  naked  body  of  his  antagonist  afforded  Hey  ward 
no  means  of  holding  his  adversary,  who  glided  from  his  grasp, 
and  rose  again  with  one  knee  on  his  chest,  pressing  him  down 
with  the  weight  of  a  giant.  Duncan  already  saw  the  knife 
gleaming  in  the  air,  when  a  whistling  sound  swept  past  him, 
and  was  rather  accompanied  than  followed  by  the  sharp  crack 
of  a  rifle.  He  felt  his  breast  relieved  from  the  load  it  had  en- 
dured ;  he  saw  the  savage  expression  of  his  adversary's  coun- 
tenance change  to  a  look  of  vacant  wildness,  when  the  Indian 
fell  dead  on  the  faded  leaves  by  his  side. 

^  4{.  ^  4{.  ^  ^  4{, 

3.  The  frame  of  the  white  man,  judging  by  such  parts  as 
were  not  concealed  by  his  clothes,  was  like  that  of  one  who 
had  known  hardships  and  exertion  from  his  earliest  youth. 
His  person,  though  muscular,  was  rather  attenuated  than  full ; 
but  every  nerve  and  muscle  appeared  strong  and  indurated 
by  unremitted  exposure  and  toil.  He  wore  a  hunting-shirt  of 
forest-green,  fringed  with  faded  yellow,  and  a  summer  cap  of 
skins  which  had  been  shorn  of  their  fur.  He  also  bore  a  knife 
in  a  girdle  of  wampum,  like  that  which  confined  the  scanty 
garments  of  the  Indian,  but  no  tomahawk.  His  moccasins 
were  ornamented  after  the  gay  fashion  of  the  natives,  while 
the  only  part  of  his  under  dress  which  appeared  below  the 
hunting  frock  was  a  pair  of  buckskin  leggings  that  laced  at 
the  sides,  and  which  were  gartered  above  the  knees  with  the 
sinews  of  a  deer.  A  pouch  and  horn  completed  his  personal 
accouterments,  though  a  rifle  of  great  length,  which  the  theory 
of  the  more  ingenious  whites  had  taught  them  was  the  most 
dangerous  of  all  firearms,  leaned  against  a  neighboring  sapling. 
The  eye  of  the  hunter,  or  scout,  whichever  he  might  be,  was 


244  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

small,  quick,  keen,  and  restless,  roving  while  he  spoke,  on 
every  side  of  him,  as  if  in  quest  of  game,  or  distrusting  the 
sudden  approach  of  some  lurking  enemy.  Notwithstanding  the 
symptoms  of  habitual  suspicion,  his  countenance  was  not  only 
without  guile,  but  at  the  moment  at  which  he  is  introduced  it 
was  charged  with  an  expression  of  sturdy  honesty. 

*****  *  * 

4.  "  Are  the  bones  of  my  young  men,"  he  concluded,  "  in  the 
burial-place  of  the  Hurons  ?  You  know  they  are  not.  Their 
spirits  are  gone  toward  the  setting  sun,  and  are  already  cross- 
ing the  great  waters,  to  the  happy  hunting-grounds.  But  they 
departed  without  food,  without  guns  or  knives,  without  moc- 
casins, naked  and  poor  as  they  were  born.  Shall  this  be  ? 
Are  their  souls  to  enter  the  land  of  the  just  like  hungry 
Iroquois  or  unmanly  Delawares,  or  shall  the}^  meet  their  friends 
with  arms  in  their  hands  and  robes  on  their  backs?  What 
will  our  fathers  think  the  tribes  of  the  Wyandots  have  become  ? 
They  will  look  on  their  children  with  a  dark  eye,  and  say  '  Go! 
a  Chippewa  has  come  hither  with  the  name  of  a  Huron.'  Broth- 
ers, we  must  not  forget  the  dead;  a  red-skin  never  ceases  to 
remember.  We  will  load  the  back  of  this  Mohican  until  he 
staggers  under  our  bounty,  and  dispatch  him  after  my  young 
men.  They  call  to  us  for  aid,  though  our  ears  are  not  open. 
They  say,  'Forget  us  not.'  When  they  see  the  spirit  of  this 
Mohican  toiling  after  them  with  his  burden,  they  will  know 
we  are  of  that  mind.  Then  will  they  go  on  happy,  and  our 
children  will  say,  '  So  did  our  fathers  to  their  friends,  so  must 
we  do  to  them.'  What  is  a  Yengee  ?  we  have  slain  many,  but 
the  earth  is  still  pale.  A  stain  on  the  name  of  a  Huron  can 
only  be  hid  by  the  blood  that  comes  from  the  veins  of  an 
Indian.     Let  this  Delaware  die." 

5.  And  let  the  sacred  obligations  which  have  devolved  on 
this  generation,  and  on  us,  sink  deep  into  our  hearts.  Those 
who  established  our  liberty  and  our  government  are  daily 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  245 

dropping  from  among  us.  The  great  trust  now  descends  to 
new  hands.  Let  as  apply  ourselves  to  that  which  is  presented 
to  us,  as  our  appropriate  object.  We  can  win  no  laurels  in 
a  war  for  independence.  IJarlier  and  worthier  hands  have 
gathered  them  all.  Nor  are  there  places  for  us  by  the  side  of 
Solon,  and  Alfred,  and  other  founders  of  states.  Our  fathers 
have  filled  them.  But  there  remains  to  us  a  great  duty  of  de- 
fense and  preservation ;  and  there  is  opened  to  us,  also,  a  noble 
pursuit,  to  which  the  spirit  of  the  times  strongly  invites  us. 
Our  proper  business  is  improvement.  Let  our  age  be  the  age 
of  improvement.  In  a  day  of  peace,  let  us  advance  the  arts  of 
peace  and  the  works  of  peace.  Let  us  develop  the  resources  of 
our  land,  call  forth  its  powers,  build  up  its  institutions,  pro- 
mote all  its  great  interests,  and  see  whether  we  also,  in  our  day 
and  generation,  may  not  perform  something  worthy  to  be  re- 
membered. Let  us  cultivate  a  true  spirit  of  union  and  harmony. 
In  pursuing  the  great  objects  which  our  condition  points  out  to 
us,  let  us  act  under  a  settled  conviction,  and  an  habitual  feeling, 
that  these  twenty-four  States  are  one  country.  Let  our  con- 
ceptions be  enlarged  to  the  circle  of  our  duties.  Let  us  extend 
our  ideas  over  the  whole  of  the  vast  field  in  which  we  are 
called  to  act.  Let  our  object  be.  Our  Country,  our  Whole 
Country,  and  Nothing  but  our  Country.  And,  by  the 
blessing  of  God,  may  that  couiitry  itself  become  a  vast  and 
splendid  monument,  not  of  oppression  and  terror,  but  of 
Wisdom,  of  Peace,  and  of  Liberty,  upon  which  the  world  may 
gaze  with  admiration  forever ! 

—  Daniel  Webster  :   The  Bunker  Hill  Monument. 

6.  The  effect  of  any  writing  on  the  public  mind  is  mathe- 
matically measured  by  its  depth  of  thought.  How  much  water 
does  it  draw  ?  If  it  awaken  you  to  think  ;  if  it  lift  you  from 
your  feet  with  the  great  voice  of  eloquence,  then  the  effect  is 
to  be  wide,  slow,  permanent,  over  the  minds  of  men;  if  the 
pages  instruct  you  not,  they  will  die  like  flies  in  the  hour. 
The  way  to  speak  and  write  what  shall  not  go  out  of  fashion 


246  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

is  to  speak  and  write  sincerely.  The  argnment  which  has  not 
power  to  reach  my  own  practice,  1  may  well  doubt  will  fail 
to  reach  yours.  But  take  Sidney's  maxim  :  "  Look  in  thy 
heart,  and  Avrite."'  He  that  writes  to  himself,  writes  to  an 
eternal  public.  That  statement  only  is  fit  to  be  made  public 
which  you  have  come  at  in  attemi)ting  to  satisfy  your  own 
curiosity.  The  writer  who  takes  his  subject  from  his  ear  and 
not  from  his  heart,  should  know  that  he  has  lost  as  much  as  he 
seems  to  have  gained,  and  when  the  empty  book  has  gathered 
all  its  praise,  and  half  the  people  say,  —  "^Vllat  poetry  !  what 
genius ! "  it  still  needs  fuel  to  make  fire.  That  only  profits 
which  is  profitable.  Life  alone  can  impart  life;  and  though 
we  should  burst,  we  can  only  be  valued  as  we  make  ourselves 
valuable.  —  Emekson  :  Spiritual  Laws. 

7.  With  this  material  for  character-drawing  ready  to  his 
hand,  and  with  these  conscious  and  unconscious  sympathies 
and  antipathies  to  guide  him  in  his  work,  how  are  his  charac- 
ters to  be  delineated  ?  It  is  usual  in  commenting  upon  the 
task  of  the  playwright  to  make  a  distinction  between  direct 
and  indirect  methods  of  character  portray  ah  The  same  dis- 
tinction holds  good  in  fiction.  The  novelist  must  often  eon- 
tent  himself  with  exhibiting  without  comment,  except  so  far 
as  the  requisite  physical  description  is  concerned,  the  personal 
appearance  of  his  characters.  He  narrates  their  actions, 
reports  their  words,  or  by  one  of  the  immemorial  conventions 
of  the  story-teller's  craft,  he  tell  us  what  is  lurking  in  their 
thoughts Bliss  Perry  :  A  Study  uf  Prose  Fiction. 

8.  For  nowhere  is  there  so  perplexed  a  mixture  as  in 
Wordsworth's  own  poetry  of  work  touched  with  intense  and 
individual  power,  with  work  of  almost  no  character  at  all.  He 
has  much  conventional  sentiment,  and  some  of  that  insincere 
poetic  diction  against  which  his  most  serious  critical  efforts 
were  directed ;  the  reaction  in  his  political  ideas,  consequent  on 
the  excesses  of  1795,  makes  him,  at  times,  a  mere  declaimer  on 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  247 

moral  and  social  topics  ;  and  he  seems,  sometimes,  to  force  an 
unwilling  pen,  and  write  by  rule.  By  making  the  most  of  these 
blemishes  it  is  possible  to  obscure  the  true  aesthetic  value  of  his 
work,  just  as  his  life  also, — a  life  of  much  quiet  delicacy  and 
independence,  —  might  easily  be  placed  on  a  false  focus,  and 
made  to  appear  a  somewhat  tame  theme  in  illustration  of  the 
more  obvious  parochial  virtues.  And  those  who  wish  to  under- 
stand his  influence  and  experience  his  peculiar  savor  must  bear 
with  patience  the  presence  of  an  alien  element  in  Wordsworth's 
work,  which  never  coalesced  with  what  is  really  delightful  in  it, 
nor  underwent  his  special  power.  Who  that  values  his  writings 
most  has  not  felt  the  intrusion  there,  from  time  to  time,  of 
something  tedious  and  j)rosaic'?  Of  all  poets  equally  great,  he 
would  gain  most  by  a  skillfully  made  anthology.  Such  a  selec- 
tion would  show,  in  truth,  not  so  much  what  he  was,  or  to  him- 
self or  others  seemed  to  be,  as  what,  by  the  more  energetic  and 
fertile  quality  of  his  writings,  he  was  ever  tending  to  become. 
And  the  mixture  in  his  work,  as  it  actually  stands,  is  so  per- 
plexed, that  one  fears  to  miss  the  least  promising  composition 
even,  lest  some  precious  morsel  should  be  lying  hidden  within  — 
the  few  perfect  lines,  the  phrase,  the  single  word  perhaps,  to 
which  he  often  works  up  mechanically  through  a  poem,  almost 
the  whole  of  which  may  be  tame  enough.  He  who  thought  that 
in  all  creative  work  the  larger  part  was  given  passively  to  the 
recipient  mind,  who  waited  so  dutifully  upon  the  gift,  to  whom 
so  large  a  measure  was  sometimes  given,  had  his  times  also  of 
desertion  and  relapse;  and  he  has  permitted  the  impress  of 
these,  too,  to  remain  in  his  work.  And  this  duality  there  —  the 
fitfulness  with  which  the  higher  qualities  manifest  themselves 
iu  it,  —  gives  the  effect  in  his  poetry  of  a  power  not  altogether 
his  own,  or  under  his  control,  which  comes  and  goes  when  it 
will,  lifting  or  lowering  a  matter,  poor  in  itself ;  so  that  that 
old  fancy  which  made  the  poet's  art  an  enthusiasm,  a  form  of 
divine  possession,  seems  almost  literally  true  of  him. 

—  Walter  Pater:    Wordsworth. 


248  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

9.  Fourscore  and  seven  years  ago  our  fathers  brought  forth 
on  this  continent  a  new  nation,  conceived  in  liberty,  and  dedi- 
cated to  the  proposition  that  all  men  are  created  equal.  Now 
we  are  engaged  in  a  great  civil  war,  testing  whether  that  nation, 
or  any  nation  so  conceived  and  so  dedicated,  can  long  endure. 
We  are  met  on  a  great  battlefield  of  that  war.  We  have  come 
to  dedicate  a  portion  of  that  field  as  a  final  resting-place  for 
those  who  here  gave  their  lives  that  that  nation  might  live.  It 
is  altogether  fitting  and  proper  that  we  should  do  this.  But 
in  a  larger  sense  we  cannot  dedicate,  we  cannot  consecrate, 
we  cannot  hallow  this  ground.  The  brave  men,  living  and 
dead,  who  struggled  here,  have  consecrated  it  far  above  our 
poor  power  to  add  or  detract.  The  world  will  little  note,  nor 
long  remember,  what  we  say  here,  but  it  can  never  forget  what 
they  did  here.  It  is  for  \\s,  the  living,  rather  to  be  dedicated 
here  to  the  unfinished  work  which  they  who  fought  here  have 
thus  far  so  nobly  advanced.  It  is  rather  for  us  to  be  here 
dedicated  to  the  great  task  remaining  before  lis,  —  that  from 
these  honored  dead  we  take  increased  devotion  to  that  cause 
for  which  they  gave  the  last  full  measure  of  devotion,  —  that 
we  here  highly  resolve  that  these  dead  shall  not  have  died  in 
vain,  —  that  this  nation,  under  God,  shall  have  a  new  birth  of 
freedom,  —  9,nd  that  government  of  the  people,  by  the  people, 
for  the  people,  shall  not  perish  from  the  earth. 

—  Abkaham  Lincoln:  Gettysburg  Speech. 


NARRATION 

Narration  is  a  form  of  discourse  which  deals  with  a  suc- 
cession of  incidents  bound  together  by  chronological  order 
or  by  the  logical  sequence  of  cause  and  effect. 

Chronological  Narrative.  — An  account  of  the  happenings 
of  a  day  spent  in  the  woods,  of  an  excursion  to  Mammoth 
Cave,  of  the  sequence  of  events  preceding  the  discovery 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  249 

of  America  or  following  the  landing  of  the  Pilgrims, 
belongs  to  the  simplest  kind  of  narration.  In  narrative 
of  this  sort,  the  incidents  are  related  only  by  their  time 
sequence  —  by  their  following  one  after  another.  Each 
incident  in  the  series,  because  it  results  from  no  preceding 
incident  nor  leads  to  anything  that  follows,  stands  out  as 
a  little  story  by  itself,  and  hence,  if  it  is  effective,  must 
possess  an  interest  of  its  own. 

This  peculiar  interest,  though  it  depends  partly  upon 
the  situation  presented,  is  derived  mainly  from  the  attrac- 
tive style  in  which  the  narrative  is  written  —  from  the 
vivid  imagery,  from  the  rapid  movement,  from  the  lively 
spirit,  and  from  the  use  of  living,  specific  words.  Two 
students  relate  the  same  incidents  of  an  afternoon  spent 
in  shopping.  One  gives  a  dry,  detailed  account  of  the 
incidents — an  account  running  along  with  a  stupid  monot- 
ony somewliat  like  that  of  the  following  selection:  "And 
then  a  locust  went  in  and  got  a  grain  of  corn;  and  then 
another  locust  went  in  and  got  another  grain  of  corn;  and 
then  another  locust  went  in  and  got  another  grain  of  corn; 
and  then  another  locust  went  in  and  got  another  grain  of 
corn,"  —  and  so  on  to  the  end.  Before  the  student  has 
related  half  the  incidents  connected  with  the  afternoon  of 
shopping,  the  reader  or  listener  is  in  a  state  of  distraction 
very  much  resembling  the  frenzy  of  the  fabled  king  who 
for  months  and  months  had  been  listening  to  the  story  of 
the  locusts,  and  who  at  last,  in  an  agony  of  impatience, 
cried  out  to  the  story-teller,  "  O,  take  my  daughter!  take 
my  kingdom!  take  anything!  take  everything!  only  let  me 
hear  no  more  of  those  abominable  locusts!"  The  second 
student,  relating  precisely  the  same  incidents  of  the  after- 
noon of  shopping,  introduces  into  the  narrative  lively 
pictures,  humorous    comparisons,   and  well-chosen  adjec- 


250  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

tives  and  verbs,  and,  in  this  way,  so  changes  the  aspect  of 
the  series  of  incidents  that  we  scarcely  recognize  them  as 
tlie  same  ones  which  have  been  rehited  by  the  lirst  student. 
The  difference  is  wholly  one  of  style. 

Narrative  of  the  sort  we  have  been  discussing  includes 
such  writing  as  newspaper  accounts  of  tlie  happenings  of 
a  day,  letters,  histories,  and  books  of  travel. 

Plot  Narrative.  —  A  more  complicated  kind  of  narrative 
is  that  which  deals  with  a  succession  of  incidents  bound 
together  by  the  relation  of  cause  and  effect.  One  thing 
happening  in  the  beginning  causes  sometliing  else  to 
happen,  and  this  something  else  in  its  turn  causes  still 
another  thing  to  hajjpen;  one  cause  produces  an  effect, 
this  effect  becomes  the  cause  of  another  effect,  and  so  on 
until  tlie  last  effect  —  the  end  to  which  all  the*  other  in- 
cidents converge  —  is  reached  in  the  part  of  the  story 
called  the  climax.  To  this  kind  of  narrative  belongs  most 
fiction,  —  the  story,  the  romance,  the  novel. 

Added  to  the  interest  derived  from  style,  and  to  the 
interest  in  the  separate  situations  or  incidents,  there  is  in 
plot  narrative  the  greater  interest  of  suspense  —  the  ea- 
gerness to  discover  to  what  end  the  incidents  are  leading 
—  to  learn  how  it  all  "  turns  out."  This  kind  of  narrative 
which  arouses  the  reader's  curiosity  to  know  the  final  re- 
sult of  a  series  of  incidents  makes  a  more  popular  appeal 
than  chronological  narrative ;  and  the  more  involved  the 
plot  —  the  greater  the  number  of  causes  or  sets  of  causes 
which  are  working  toward  the  climax — the  more  intense 
is  the  interest  aroused.  In  detective  stories,  such  as  The 
Moonstone,  by  Wilkie  Collins,  we  are  frequently  interested 
in  three  or  four  series  of  incidents  working  together,  as 
coincident  but  apparently  separate  sets  of  causes,  toward 
the  final  result  —  the  discovery  of  the  thief,  the  murderer, 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  251 

the  incendiary,  or  whatever  sort  of  villain  there  happens 
to  be  in  the  story. 

Qualities  Essential  to  Effective  Narration. — In  narration, 
as  in  all  the  other  forms  of  discourse,  three  qualities  are 
essential  to  effective  narration ;  namely,  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis.  From  our  study  of  these  qualities  in  the 
sentence,  in  the  paragraph,  and  in  the  whole  composition 
we  know  that  unity  means  oneness  of  thought  or  purpose, 
and  that  it  depends  upon  the  selection  of  the  proper  amount 
and  of  the  proper  kind  of  material ;  that  coherence  means 
clearness  of  thought,  and  that  it  depends  upon  skillful 
arrangement  and  connection ;  that  emphasis  means  the 
proper  employment  of  stress,  and  that  it  depends  partially 
upon  the  skillful  arrangement  of  material,  and  partially 
upon  proportion  of  treatment. 

UNITY   IN  NARRATION 

Unity  of  thought  or  purpose  in  narration  is  sometimes 
difficult  to  be  discovered,  especially  in  chronological  nar- 
rative, where  the  incidents  are  related  only  by  their  time 
sequence.  Not  infrequently  such  narrative  finds  its  unity 
in  the  single  point  of  view  of  the  narrator  —  as  in  some  of 
the  Hawthorne  sketches  where  the  writer,  from  a  single 
point  of  view, —  from  the  top  of  a  tall  steeple  or  from  a 
toll  house,  —  relates  the  happenings  of  an  afternoon  or 
morning.  Again  it  may  find  its  unity  in  the  single  char- 
acter or  group  of  characters  figuring  in  the  series  of  in- 
cidents. Often,  however,  the  only  unity  which  binds  the 
incidents  together  is  that  of  time  sequence. 

In  chronological  narrative,  anything  introduced,  which 
disturbs  the  time  sequence,  or  anything  which  fails  to 
make  clear  the  writer's  point  of  view,  or  anything  con- 
cerning characters  not  connected  in  some  way  with  the 


252  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

series  of  incidents,  is  destructive  of  unity.  For  example, 
an  account  of  a  trip  through  Yellowstone  National  Park 
would  lack  unity  if  the  narrator  should  introduce  into 
the  story  incidents  preceding  or  following  the  trip ;  if  he 
should  introduce  incidents  happening  within  the  time  of 
the  trip  but  not  belonging  to  the  trip,  or  if  he  should  in- 
troduce characters  in  no  way  connected  with  the  trip.  By 
relating  in  detail  incidents  connected  with  the  preparation, 
incidents  occurring  at  the  home  of  the  narrator  during  the 
trip,  or  even  incidents  which  occur  in  the  Park  during  the 
trip  but  which  do  not  come  under  his  observation  or  within 
his  experience,  the  writer  would  destroy  the  unity  of  his 
narration. 

In  plot  narrative,  where  the  sequence  is  that  of  cause 
and  effect,  it  is  much  easier  for  the  writer  to  secure  unity, 
and  much  easier  for  the  reader  to  discern  it ;  for  here  all 
the  incidents  connected  with  the  plot  converge,  or  should 
converge,  toward  one  incident,  which  because  it  is  the  final 
result  of  the  causal  incidents  going  before,  may  be  called 
the  master  incident  or  climax.  In  Scott's  3Iarmion  all  the 
incidents  lead  directly  or  indirectly  to  and  from  the  giv- 
ing up  of  a  packet  of  letters  which  contain  evidence  of 
Marmion's  guilt.  It  is  Scott's  purpose,  in  the  outset,  to 
bring  Marmion's  sin  to  liglit,  and  to  restore  to  honor  the 
man  whom  Marmion  has  wronged.  Keeping  this  purpose 
in  mind  throughout  the  story,  Scott  introduces  two  series 
of  causal  incidents,  —  one  series  connected  with  Marmion's 
choice  of  his  worst  enemy  as  a  guide,  the  other,  with 
the  execution  of  his  former  page,  who  is  in  reality  his 
betrayed  paramour.  The  two  series  working  together  in 
marvelous  coincidence  eventually  lead  to  the  discovery 
of  Marmion's  wrong-doing  and  to  the  revelation  of  his 
enemy's  innocence. 


FORMS    OF    DISCOURSE  253 

Thus  we  can  easily  see  in  the  working  out  of  cause  and 
effect  the  unity  of  the  plot.  In  this  story  of  Marmion, 
as  in  most  long  stories,  incidents  are  introduced  which 
seem  to  have  no  bearing  upon  the  plot.  But  when  we 
study  them  carefully  in  their  relation  to  or  effect  upon 
the  characters  through  whom  the  plot  is  developed,  we 
discover  that  these  incidents,  too,  have  a  part  in  bringing 
about  the  great  issue  or  climax.  » 

Occasionally  we  find  a  story  of  plot  interest,  in  which 
the  incidents  in  a  series  work  toward  a  larger  incident, 
which  is  in  itself  a  little  climax  or  the  master  incident  of 
its  series.  Then  succeeds  another  series  of  incidents  lead- 
ing to  another  little  climax.  In  this  way  the  story  con- 
tinues to  the  end  with  a  number  of  small  climaxes,  but 
with  no  master  climax  toward  which  all  the  other  incidents 
converge.  Such  a  narrative  seems  to  lack  unity  because 
it  has  no  one  incident  to  which  all  the  others  are  subor- 
dinated. Cooper's  Last  of  the  Mohicans  is  a  good  example 
of  a  story  which  has  strong  plot  interest,  but  which 
has  no  unified  plot.  In  this  novel,  one  series  of  inci- 
dents after  another  is  completed  by  a  small  climax,  but 
there  is  no  final  turning  point  in  it  —  no  point  at  which 
the  fortunes  of  the  opposing  characters  are  permanently 
reversed. 

Here,  as  in  the  chronological  narrative,  the  unity  lies 
not  in  the  subordination  of  all  other  incidents  to  a  master 
incident,  but  in  the  writer's  unity  of  purpose.  It  is 
Cooper's  motive  throughout  the  story  to  show  how,  at 
every  turn,  the  treacherous,  revengeful  purpose  of  the 
subtle  Indian,  Magna,  is  thwarted.  Capture  and  escape 
follow  each  other  to  the  end  of  the  story,  and  the  final  es- 
cape is  more  significant  than  the  others  only  because  it  is 
the  final  escape.     It  is  not  the  grand  climax  of  all  the  series 


254  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 

of  incidents  in  the  story,  but  only  the  little  climax  of  the 
last  series. 

How  to  secure  Unity  in  Narration.  —  In  order  to  secure 
unity  in  chronological  narrative,  the  writer  must  exclude 

(1)  all  incidents  preceding  the  beginning  or  following  the 
end  of  the  series  which  properly  belongs  to  his  subject; 

(2)  all  incidents  occurring  within  the  time  of   the  series, 
but  not  belonging  to  the  subject  treated  in  the  series ; 

(3)  all  incidents  not  consistent  with  his  point  of  view. 

In  order  to  secure  unity  in  plot  narrative,  the  writer 
must  exclude  all  incidents  not  bearing  directly  or  in- 
directly upon  the  master  incident  or  climax.  If  the 
narrative  has  plot  interest,  but  no  unified  plot,  —  as  in 
The  Last  of  the  Mohicans^  —  the  writer  must  exclude  all 
incidents  not  in  harmony  with  his  ruling  motive  in  the 
story. 

Unity  depending  upon  the  Point  of  View.  —  Just  what 
incidents  a  writer  may  include  in  his  narrative,  depends 
largely  upon  whether  the  account  is  written  in  the  first  or 
third  person.  A  writer  employing  the  first  j^erson  pro- 
noun can  tell  only  what  a  single  person  may  know ;  he 
can  tell  what  he  sees  or  hears,  or  what  he  hears  about ; 
more  than  this  he  cannot  tell  without  destroying  unity. 
The  writer  who  tells  his  story  in  the  third  person  may 
introduce  any  incidents  which  are  in  harmony  with  his 
suljject  or  with  his  purpose.  By  literary  license  he  is 
permitted  to  know  everything ;  he  can  tell  what  is  happen- 
ing in  two  different  places  at  the  same  time ;  he  can  enter 
into  the  moods  and  divine  the  purposes  of  his  characters, 
and  he  can  even  foresee  all  that  happens  to  liis  characters 
in  the  end. 

It  is  advisable  for  the  young  writer  to  make  most  of  his 
narrative  autobiographical  in  form ;   the  limitation  which 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE  255 

the  first  person  pronoun  imposes  will  make  him  less  likely 
to  digress  from  his  main  point.  The  employment  of  the 
third  person  pronoun,  giving  to  the  writer  unlimited  knowl- 
edge, or  making  of  him,  as  Hawthorne  expresses  it,  a  sort 
of  "spiritual  Paul  Pry,"  is  very  apt  to  lead  him  from  the 
main  road  into  numerous  bypaths  —  to  tempt  him  to  intro- 
duce incidents  which  have  no  real  place  in  the  narrative. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Relate  in  a  brief  composition  the  incidents  of  '■'An 
Evening  Spent  Alone  in  an  Old  House.''''  Employ  the  first 
person.  To  what  kind  of  narrative  does  your  composition 
belong  ?  Wliy  ?  Examine  your  story  carefully  to  see  whether  or 
not  you  have  introduced  any  incidents  not  belonging  to  your 
subject.  Have  you  related  any  incidents  occurring  in  the 
morning  or  in  the  afternoon  preceding  the  evening  spent 
alone  in  the  old  house?  Have  you  related  incidents  which 
occurred  on  the  folloiving  morning?  Have  you  related  any 
incidents  ivhich  uiere  occurring  elsewhere  while  you  were  in 
the  old  house?  Have  you  introduced  incidents  which  you, 
employing  the  first  person.,  could  not  know  about? 

II.  Assume  that  some  boy  or  some  girl  in  your  school  has 
been  found  guilty  of  stealing  articles  or  money  from  the  cloak 
room.  Tell  in  the  third  person  the  story  of  the  discovery  of 
the  pupil" s  guilt.  Let  the  discovery  of  the  theft  be  the  result 
of  a  series  of  incidents.,  leading  one  to  another.  To  what  kind 
of  narrative  does  your  story  belong?  Why?  What  do  you 
call  the  iyicideiit  in  your  story  to  which  all  the  others  lead  ? 
Have  you  introduced  any  incidents  which  have  nothing  to  do 
with  the  climax  ? 

III.  Tell  in  another  story  all  the  incidents  leaditig  up 
to   the  first  act  of  stealing.     Begin  with  the  circumstances 


256  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

exciting  temptation,  and  show  lioio  the  temijtation  finally  grew 
into  guilt.  Let  one  step  lead  to  another  until  the  climax  is 
reached,  then  close  the  story  with  a  brief  conclusion.  Remem- 
ber that  a  lengthy  conclusion  to  a  short  story  is  destructive 
of  unity. 

IV.  To  what  kind  of  7iarrative  does  "  The  Mercliant 
of  Venice'^  belong?  What  is  the  climax  of  the  story?  Two 
series  of  events  working  together  in  remarkahle  coincidence 
lead  to  the  climax.  What  incident  starts  the  first  series? 
What  incident  starts  the  second  series  ?     Grive  the  incidents 

in  each  series.  Does  any  incident  in  the  story  destroy  the 
unity  of  the  plot?  If  so,  what  incident  is  it?  Can  you 
see  any  relation  between  Jessica's  elopemeni  and  the  climax? 

V.  Read  the  story  of  Jeanne  D'Arcs  life,  and  be  pre- 
pared to  ivrite  a  soliloquy,  reflecting  the  lofty  dreams  and 
visions  of  this  ardent,  pat7'iotic  young  girl.  A  careful  study 
of  the  picture  7('ill  help  you  to  secure  the  proper  feeling  in 
your  composition. 

COHERENCE   IN  NARRATION 

When  the  time  order  and  the  plot  sequence  of  events  in 
a  narrative  are  clear  to  tlie  reader,  we  say  that  the  story  is 
coherent.  This  quality  is  very  easily  secured  in  chrono- 
logical narrative ;  in  fact,  in  this  kind  of  narrative,  cohe- 
rence depends  chiefly  upon  the  relation  of  incidents  in 
their  time  order.  In  giving  an  account,  for  example,  of 
tlie  incidents  connected  with  the  settlement  of  Plymouth, 
the  writer  would  logically  ])egin  with  the  landing  of  the 
Pilgrims;  proceeding  from  this  event,  lie  would  relate  tlie 
successive  ha[)penings  in  their  ('hronologioal  order.  Should 
he  disturb  the  time  sequence  by  relating  some  event  remote 
from  the  landing,  and  then  go  back  to  the  incidents  imme- 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE 


257 


258  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

diately  following  the  landing,  his  narrative  would  become 
incoherent. 

Although  coherence  in  chronological  narrative  depends 
mainly  upon  the  proper  arrangement  of  incidents  in  their 
time  order,  it  is  important  to  use  transitional  expressions 
which  will  keep  the  time  sequence  and  the  writer's  chang- 
ing point  of  view  clear  to  the  reader.  In  passing  from  one 
event  to  another,  for  instance,  such  expressions  as  "after 
this,"  "on  the  following  day,"  "thereupon,"  "instantly," 
"  this  had  no  sooner  occurred  than,"  "  immediately  follow- 
ing," keep  the  time  relation  of  incidents  clear ;  and  such 
expressions  as  "passing  on,"  "continuing  our  journey," 
"proceeding  from  this  point,"  keep  the  writer's  changing 
point  of  view  before  the  reader. 

In  plot  narrative  the  sequence  is,  as  we  have  seen,  that 
of  cause  and  effect.  If  this  sequence  is  disturbed,  if  the 
effect  is  given  before  the  cause,  the  narrative  is  likely 
to  be  incoherent.  If  Shakspere,  in  The  Merchant  of 
Venice,  had  begun  with  the  trial  and  defeat  of  Shylock, 
then  had  gone  back  to  the  lending  of  the  money,  which 
was  the  first  causal  incident  in  the  first  series  leading  to 
the  climax,  and  from  there  on  had  led  back  to  the  trial, 
the  story  would  likely  be  less  coherent. 

Sometimes  a  writer,  in  what  is  called  reverting  narrative, 
begins  in  the  middle  of  a  story  or  close  to  the  end,  present- 
ing some  striking  situation  or  perhaps  even  the  climax  in 
tlie  lives  of  the  principal  characters.  He  then  goes  back 
to  the  beginning  and  traces  all  the  causes  that  will  account 
for  the  striking  situation  or  the  climax.  In  Scott's 
Marmion,  for  example,  we  are  introduced  to  Marmion 
long  after  he  has  committed  the  crime  which  eventually 
leads  to  his  downfall.  In  reverting  narrative  we  are  led 
back  through  stories  told  by  different  characters,  to  the 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE 


259 


crime  itself,  then   from  the  crime  back  to  the  incidents 
which  result  in  the  discovery  of  his  guilt. 

Only  the  skillful  writer,  however,  can  keep  the  relation 
between  the  incidents  in  reverting  narrative  clear;  hence 
most  writers  of  plot  narrative  begin  with  the  first  cause  of 
complication,  proceed  from  that  to  the  first  effect,  which 
generally  becomes  the  second  cause,  and  so  continue  through 
the  series.  Since  cause  and  effect  follow  in  chronological 
order,  a  narrative  so  developed  naturally  follows  the  time 
order,  and  is  therefore  simpler  and  more  coherent. 


EXERCISES 

I.    Relate  in  an    imaginary  sketch   the  incidents  of  one 
day  in  the  life  of  the  French  peasants  pictured  here.     Let  the 


260  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

sketch  reflect  the  toil  lohlrh  the  picture  SKf/c/eats.  Let  it  also 
reflect  the  spirit  which  you  see  in  the  attitudes  of  the  man  and 
the  woman.  A  careful  reading  of  Hdwin  Markhams  poem 
entitled  '•'' The  Man  ivith  a  Hoe'''  zvill  heljy  you  to  secure 
the  proper  feeling  in  your  sketch. 

II.  Read  Wordsworth's  poem  entitled  '-^  To  a  Iliyhland 
Girl."'  Write  a  short  composition  explaining  conditions 
ichieh  may  account  for  the  difference  between  the  life  of  the 
French  peasant  woman  pictured  here  and  that  of  the  joyous, 
beautifid  Highland  girl  described  in  the  poem. 

How  to  secure  Coherence  in  Narration.  —  In  order  to  secure 
coherence  in  narration  the  writer  must  arrange  his  events 
in  the  time  order  in  which  they  occur,  or  in  the  order  of 
cause  and  effect,  which,  except  in  reverting  narrative, 
generall}^  follows  the  time  order.  He  must  use,  when 
necessar3>  such  transitional  expressions  as  after  this,  there- 
upon, while  this  was  going  on,  before  this  time,  in  the  mean- 
time—  in  short,  he  must  use  any  expressions  which  will 
keep  clear  to  the  reader  the  relation  between  incidents. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Criticise  the  incoherence  hi  the  following  summary  of 
Canto  I  of  Scott's  ^^ Marmion.''''  To  what  is  the  incoherence 
due?  Rearrange  the  incidents  as  you  think  they  occurred 
in  order  of  time.  In  rewriting,  pay  close  attention  to  para- 
graph structure. 

Early  in  the  evening  of  August  the  First,  Fifteen  Hundred 
Thirteen,  Lord  Mann  ion,  an  embassador  on  his  way  from 
the  Court  of  Henry  the  Eiglith  of  England  to  the  Court  of 
James  the  Fourth  of  Scotland,  arrives  at  Norham  Castle,  where 
he  stops  to  seek  shelter  for  the  night  and  to  obtain  a  guide. 
The  next  morning,  mid  the  firing  of  cannon  and  the  music  and 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  261 

farewell  songs  of  the  minstrels  and  harpers,  he,  in  company 
with  the  Palmer  as  a  guide,  and  with  his  gallant  train  of  squires, 
pages,  and  yeomen,  departs  from  the  castle  in  great  state. 
Upon  his  arrival  he  is  greeted  by  the  captain  of  the  castle,  and 
is  led  by  the  heralds  to  the  great  banquet  hall,  where  he  is 
introduced  to  the  guests  assembled  there  to  do  him  honor. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  evening  he  asks  the  captain  for  a  guide 
to  lead  him  to  Edinburgh.  Many  are  mentioned,  but  none  is 
available  except  a  mysterious  Palmer,  who  has  arrived  from 
Jerusalem  the  night  before.  The  Palmer  is  immediately 
summoned  from  his  cell  to  meet  Marmion.  During  the  banquet 
which  follows  Lord  Marmion's  introduction  to  the  guests,  the 
captain,  in  an  insinuating  manner,  asks  Marmion  where  he  has 
left  his  former  page.  Marmion,  checking  his  rising  pain  and 
wrath,  calmly  replies  that  he  has  left  the  boy  sick  at  Lindis- 
farne.  Then  he  asks  the  captain  where  Lady  Heron  is.  Sir 
Hugh  answers  that  his  wife  is  at  the  Scottish  Court  visiting 
Queen  Margaret  in  her  bower.  When  the  Palmer  enters  the 
great  hall,  he  stares  wildly  at  Marmion,  but  makes  no  obei- 
sance to  him  as  the  others  have  done.  At  last  striding  up  to 
Marmion  with  a  haughty  air,  he  asks  of  what  service  he  may 
be  to  him.  Marmion  requests  that  the  Palmer  act  as  his  guide, 
and  the  Palmer  consents  to  do  so.  Toward  midnight  after  the 
wassail  bowl  is  again  passed  around,  the  festivities  cease ;  all 
retire  for  the  night,  and  soon  the  great  hall  is  silent. 

IL  Read  the  foil  owing  narrative  taken  from  Poe's  '•^De- 
scent into  a  Maelstrom/'  In  what  respect  is  this  iiarrative 
more  coherent  than  the  one  above  ?  Hoiv  do  the  expressions  in 
italics  help  ?    Write  the  same  narrative  in  the  third  person. 

"It  is  now  within  a  few  days  of  three  years  since  what  I  am 
going  to  tell  you  occurred.  It  was  on  the  tenth  day  of  July, 
18—,  a  day  which  the  people  of  this  part  of  the  world  will 
never  forget  —  for  it  was  one  in  which  blew  the  most  terrible 
hurricane  that  ever  came  out  of  the  heavens ;  and  yet  all  the 


262  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 

morning  and,  indeed,  until  late  in  the  afternoon,  there  was  a 
gentle  and  steady  breeze  from  the  southwest,  while  the  sun 
shone  brightly,  so  that  the  oldest  seaman  among  us  could  not 
have  foreseen  what  was  to  follow. 

"  The  three  of  us — my  two  brothers  and  myself  —  had  crossed 
over  to  the  islands  about  2  o'clock  p.m.,  and  had  soon  nearly 
loaded  the  smack  with  line  fish,  which,  we  all  remarked,  were 
more  plentiful  that  day  than  we  had  ever  known  them.  It  was 
just  seven  by  my  watch  when  we  weighed  and  started  for  home, 
so  as  to  make  the  worst  of  the  Strom  at  slack  water,  which  we 
knew  would  be  at  eight. 

"  We  set  out  with  a  fresh  wind  on  our  starboard  quarter,  and 
for  some  time  spanked  along  at  a  great  rate,  never  dreaming  of 
danger;  for  indeed  Ave  saw  not  the  slightest  reason  to  appre- 
hend it.  All  at  once  we  were  taken  aback  by  a  breeze  from 
over  Helseggen.  T7its  was  most  unusual  —  something  that  had 
never  happened  to  us  before  —  and  I  began  to  feel  a  little  un- 
easy without  exactly  knowing  why.  We  put  the  boat  on  the 
wind,  but  could  make  no  headway  at  all  for  the  eddies,  and  I 
was  put  upon  the  point  of  proposing  to  return  to  the  anchorage, 
lohen,  looking  astern,  we  saw  the  whole  horizon  covered  with  a 
singular,  copper-colored  cloud  that  rose  with  the  most  amazing 
velocity. 

"  In  the  meantime  the  breeze  that  had  headed  us  off  fell  away, 
and  we  were  dead  becalmed,  drifting  about  in  every  direction. 
This  state  of  things,  however,  did  not  last  long  enough  to  give 
us  time  to  think  about  it.  In  less  than  a  minute  the  storm  was 
upon  us  —  in  less  than  two  the  sky  was  entirely  overcast — and 
what  with  this  and  the  driving  spray  it  became  suddenly  so  dark 
that  we  could  not  see  each  other  in  the  smack. 

"Such  a  hurricane  as  then  blew,  it  is  folly  to  attempt  describ- 
ing. The  oldest  seaman  in  Norway  never  experienced  any- 
thing like  it.  We  had  let  our  sails  go  by  the  run  before  it 
cleverly  took  us;  but,  at  the  first  puff,  both  our  masts  went  by 
the  board  as  if  they  had  been  sawed  off — the  mainmast  taking 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE  263 

with  it  my  youngest  brother,  who  had  lashed  himself  to  it  for 
safety. 

"Our  boat  was  the  lightest  feather  of  a  thing  that  ever  sat 
upon  water.  It  had  a  complete  flush  deck,  with  only  a  small 
hatch  near  the  bow,  and  this  hatch  it  had  always  been  our 
custom  to  batten  down  when  about  to  cross  the  Strom  by  way 
of  precaution  against  the  chopping  seas.  But  for  this  circum- 
stance we  should  have  foundered  at  once — for  we  lay  entirely 
buried  for  some  moinents.  How  my  elder  brother  escaped 
destruction  I  cannot  say,  for  I  never  had  an  opportunity  of 
ascertaining.  For  my  part,  as  soon  as  I  had  let  the  foresail 
run,  I  threw  myself  flat  on  deck,  with  my  feet  against  the  nar- 
row gunwale  of  the  bow,  and  with  my  hands  grasping  a  ring  bolt 
near  the  foot  of  the  fore  mast.  It  was  mere  instinct  that 
prompted  me  to  do  this  —  which  was  undoubtedly  the  very  best 
thing  I  could  have  done  —  for  I  was  too  much  flurried  to 
think. 

"jPor  some  moments  we  were  completely  deluged,  as  I  say, 
and  all  this  time  I  held  my  breath,  and  clung  to  the  bolt. 
When  I  could  stand  it  no  longer,  I  raised  myself  upon  my  knees, 
still  keeping  hold  with  my  hands,  and  thus  got  my  head  clear. 
Presently  our  little  boat  gave  herself  a  shake,  just  as  a  dog  does 
in  coming  out  of  the  water,  and  thus  rid  herself  in  some 
measure  of  the  seas.  I  was  noiv  trying  to  get  the  better  of  the 
stupor  that  had  come  over  me,  and  to  collect  my  senses  so  as  to 
see  what  was  to  be  done,  when  I  felt  somebody  grasp  my  arm. 
It  was  my  elder  brother,  and  ray  heart  leaped  for  joy,  for  I  had 
made  sure  that  he  was  overboard — but  the  next  moment  all 
this  joy  was  turned  into  horror — for  he  put  his  mouth  close  to 
my  ear,  and  screamed  out  the  word  'Moskoestrom! '  " 

III.  Write  an  account  of  an  accident  which  you  observed 
recently^  or  one  in  which  you  yourself  were  hurt.  Be  careful 
to  arrange  the  incidents  in  such  a  way  as  to  secure  coherence. 
Watch  your  connectives. 


264  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

EMPHASIS  IN  NARRATION 

In  the  study  of  the  sentence,  the  paragraph,  and  the 
whole  composition,  we  learned  that  emphasis  is  a  quality 
which  exists  wlien  the  important  ideas  in  the  sentence,  in 
the  paragraph,  or  in  the  whole  composition  stand  out 
clearly  from  the  minor  ideas.  We  learned,  too,  that  it 
may  be  secured  (1)  by  arranging  in  prominent  positions 
at  the  beginning  and  at  tlie  end  such  parts  of  tlie  sentence, 
of  the  paragraph,  or  the  whole  composition  as  deserve 
special  distinction,  and  (2)  by  duly  subordinating  to  the 
main  ideas  the  details  of  the  structure. 

In  the  pupil's  reading  of  fiction  he  has  doubtless  noted 
that  the  most  striking  situations,  and  the  incidents  of 
greatest  import,  are  usually  placed  at  the  beginning  or  near 
the  end  of  the  story.  The  object  of  such  arrangement  is, 
as  can  clearly  be  seen,  to  bring  into  prominence  the  parts 
of  the  story  which  are  most  significant  in  the  development 
of  the  plot  or  in  the  carrying  out  of  the  author's  purpose. 
An  incident  placed  at  the  beginning  derives  its  emphasis 
from  the  natural  curiosity  with  which  we  note  whatever  is 
new  and  promising;  an  incident  placed  at  the  end  derives 
its  emphasis  partly  from  the  suspense  which  precedes  it 
and  partly  from  the  fact  that  the  last  incident  is  freshest 
in  the  mind.  Since  an  incident  placed  at  the  end  of  a 
story  receives  greater  emphasis  than  one  placed  at  the  be- 
ginning, most  writers  reserve  the  climax  for  the  end. 
Not  infrequently,  however,  as  in  reverting  narrative,  a 
writer  begins  with  the  climax,  then  goes  back  to  the  first 
casual  incident,  tracing  from  this  incident  the  series 
resulting  from  it,  and  accounting  for  the  climax.  His 
object  in  this  is  to  stimulate  keen  interest  at  once  — 
an   interest  strong  enough    to   carry   the    reader  with    a 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE  265 

pleasure  not  wholly  derived  from  suspense  through  the 
rest  of  the  story. 

But  this  matter  of  arrangement,  though  it  is  of  chief 
importance  in  securing  emphasis,  is  not  the  only  method 
of  doing  so.  The  minor  incidents  must  he  duly  subor- 
dinated to  the  main  incidents.  Although  these  incidents 
are  partly  subordinated  by  their  position  between  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end  of  the  story,  they  may  still  be  given 
undue  emphasis  through  a  lack  of  proper  proportion .  Often 
a  story  is  lacking  in  emphasis  because  the  minor  incidents, 
the  descriptions,  and  the  explanations  are  given  in  greater 
detail  than  their  real  place  in  the  story  warrants.  This 
undue  proportion  given  to  detail  naturally  robs  the  essen- 
tial incidents  of  their  emphasis. 

In  chronological  narrative,  where  there  is  no  climax,  the 
writer  gives  each  incident  its  due  emphasis  by  relating  it 
in  such  detail  as  its  importance  in  the  story  requires. 
The  exciting,  the  marvelous,  the  significant  incidents,  he 
tells  at  length ;  the  less  important  ones  he  passes  over 
briefly.  In  plot  narrative,  where  he  usually  follows  the 
sequence  of  cause  and  effect,  he  gives  the  incidents  their 
due  emphasis  both  by  giving  them  their  proper  proportion, 
and  by  placing  in  prominent  positions — at  the  beginning 
and  at  the  end — the  most  striking  incidents. 

Cooper's  The  Last  of  the  Mohicans^  tliough  it  has  plot 
interest,  has  no  unified  plot  and  no  climax.  The  incidents 
secure  their  emphasis  from  their  livel}^  manner  and  from 
the  lengtli  at  which  they  are  told.  The  attacks,  the 
captures,  and  the  escapes  are  related  at  great  length;  the 
killing  of  a  colt,  the  shooting  of  a  wandering  Mingo  and 
of  a  French  sentinel,  because  they  are  incidents  of  little 
importance  in  the  development  of  Cooper's  purpose,  are 
passed  over  briefly.      In  Marmion,  Scott  gives  to  the  im- 


266  coMrosiTiox  and  rhetoric 

portant  incident  of  Constance's  execution  its  clue  emphasis, 
partly  by  placing  it  close  to  the  beginning,  and  partly  by 
relating  it  in  a  striking  manner  and  at  great  length.  To  the 
climax  —  the  giving  up  of  a  ])acket  of  letters  —  he  gives 
empliasis,  partly  by  placing  it  close  to  the  end,  partly  by 
the  lively  manner  in  which  he  relates  it,  and  partly  by  the 
proportion  of  treatment  which  he  gives  to  it. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Relate  the  incidents  of  a  flay  spent  in  the  country,  in  a 
eonntry  town,  or  in  the  city.  To  what  kind  of  narrative  does 
your  composition  belong?  Examine  your  story  carefully. 
Have  you  given  greater  length  to  some  incideiits  than  to 
others  ?  If  so,  why  ?  Are  you  sure  that  the  most  important 
incidents  stand  out  prominently  from  the  minor  incidents? 
Which  incidents  should  you,  for  the  sake  of  proportion., 
shorten?  Which  incidents  should  you,  for  the  sake  of  em- 
phasis, lengthen?  Have  you  spent  more  time  in  enumer- 
ating the  things  you  ate  than  in  relating  the  story  of  the 
accident,  the  quarrel,  or  the  storm  ivhich  may  have  occurred 
in  the  afternoon?  Are  you  sure  that  your  story  has  the 
essential  quality  of  emphasis? 

II.  Relate  the  story  of  reconciliation  bettveen  two  brothers, 
ivho,  through  some  misunderstanding,  have  long  been  es- 
tranged. Let  your  story  begin  with  the  circ7im stances  caus- 
ing the  estrangement,  then  let  it  gradually  lead  up  through  a 
series  of  incidents  to  a  clearing  up  of  the  misunderstanding^ 
and  finally  to  the  reconciliation.  To  what  kind  of  narrative 
does  your  story  belong?  How  have  you  given  emphasis  to 
the  incidents  of  greatest  importance?  Can  your  readers  dis- 
tiugui.'ih  the  minor  from  the  main  incidents?  Tell  the  same 
story  in  dialogue  between  the  two  brothers. 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE 


267 


III.    Tell  a  story  sugc/ested  hy  this  picture.      The  merry 
glee  of  the  children^  who  are  hringing  disaster  to  the  picture., 


i     '  — # 

nij^ 

^^^^/hT                      -^^H 

K^3 

Mm)                ^"''.%^*                 t 

m\ 

(BsgBS^^:    '  -  hE^Ib)'  <v  '                 *!^^^llflft  .-'■'..- 

WkmrnrnF^^ 

J.,  'jj ' .  ^  '^^SmBmL 

I^Wi^B 

awe?  possihly  upon  themselves,  and  those  tvhom  they  love.,  you 
may  make  use  of  to  secure  pathos. 

IV.    Describe  the  scene  portrayed  in  this  picture,  grouping 


268  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

the  objects  in  relatint  to  the.  central  figures  in  tlie  foreground. 
You  loill  give  feeling  to  gour  description  hg  using  sucli  ex- 
pressions as:  tnevry-eyed  hoys;  cheeks  dhnpl'uiy  with 
lamjhter i  serious-faced,  demure  little  girl;  rickety  old 
stand ;  iritJi  three  totterin{/  leys;  and  so  on. 

V.  Recall  three  long  stories  ■u;id<^1t'  you  have  read.  To 
ivhat  kind  of  narrative  does  each  belong  ?  Where  in  each 
story  does  the  climax  come?  Recall  some  of  the  minor  inci- 
dents in  each  one.  Hoiv  do  you  knoiv  that  they  are  minor 
incidents?  What  is  the  character  of  the  incidents  found  in 
the  beginning  of  each  story?  Are  they  coinnionplace  or 
striking  ? 

SOURCES  OF   INTEREST   IX  NARRATION 

In  plot  narrative  tlie  cliief  source  of  interest  is  usually 
that  of  suspense  —  a  keen  desire  to  know  to  what  end  an 
incident,  or  a  series  of  incidents,  is  leading.  Added  to 
this  interest,  which  is  derived  from  suspense,  there  is  the 
interest  in  unusual  situations,  in  the  rapid  movement  of 
the  narrative,  in  the  individuality  of  the  characters,  and 
in  the  style  in  which  the  narrative  is  written. 

In  chronological  narrative  the  chief  sources  of  interest 
are  in  the  unusual  situations  and  in  the  style  in  which  the 
narrative  is  written. 

USES   OF   DESCRIPTION   IN  NARRATION 

In  the  beginning  of  the  present  chapter  we  have  said 
that  the  forms  of  discourse  rarely  exist  separately  —  that 
in  almost  every  piece  of  writing  ma}^  be  found  two  or 
more  forms  of  discourse.  Now,  a  very  important  part  of 
every  narrative  is  the  description,  whicli  accompanies  it, 
and  which,  though  subordinate  to  the  story,  often  serves 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  269 

a  number  of  uses  in  the  story.  One  important  office  of 
description  in  narration  is  to  furnish  a  background  which 
will  heighten  the  effect  of  the  incident.  Iji  Scott's  Mar- 
mion  the  pleasant  effect  which  the  reknighting  of  De  Wil- 
ton produces  upon  the  feelings  of  the  reader  is  largely 
due  to  the  charming  description  of  the  moon-lit  chapel, 
in  which  the  ceremony  is  performed.  In  The  Last  of  the 
Mohicans,  INIagua,  a  treacherous  Indian,  prepares  to  make 
a  cowardly  assault  upon  the  life  of  Colonel  Munro.  He 
is  intercepted  in  his  attempt  by  General  Montcalm.  Tlie 
effect  of  the  incident  is  greatly  heightened  by  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  midnight  scene,  in  which  the  action  occurs. 
The  pictures  of  the  old  fort,  of  the  tall,  gaunt  figure  of 
the  white-haired,  aged  Munro,  leaning  against  the  ram- 
parts of  the  fort ;  of  Montcalm  issuing  from  his  tent  and 
stealing,  in  the  dim  moonlight,  through  the  line  of  French 
sentinels,  and  of  Magna  rising  stealthily  out  of  the  dark 
water,  —  these  descriptive  details  give  to  the  incident 
itself  almost  all  the  interest  which  it  possesses. 

Description  in  narration  often  serves  another  important 
purpose ;  it  frequently  aids  in  the  interpretation  of  char- 
acter and  even  of  the  story  itself.  "The  shifting  glance," 
"  the  sinister  brow,"  "  the  thin,  cruel  lips,"  and  "  the 
stealthy  actions"  betray  the  villain,  while  the  ''steady,  level 
gaze,"  the  "  broad,  intellectual  forehead,"  the  "  straight, 
firm  mouth  with  sensitive  lips,"  give  us  insight  into  the 
character  of  the  hero.  Again,  descriptions  of  places  are 
often  necessary  to  an  understanding  of  the  incidents  of 
the  stor}^ 

The  pictures  of  Florence  which  we  get  in  George  Eliot's 
Romola  help  us  to  interpret  many  of  the  incidents  in  the 
story.  In  fact,  the  evolution  of  selfishness  in  the  charac- 
ter of  Tito,  the  impotency  of  Baldassarre's    attempts  to 


270  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

seek  revenge,  the  persecution  of  Savonarola,  and  the 
growth  of  Romola's  character,  we  can  understand  only 
when  we  know  Florence  and  her  people  as  they  are  painted 
in  the  story. 

In  stories  of  life  interest  —  stories  in  which  a  large 
measure  of  interest  centers  in  the  setting  —  and  in  chrono- 
logical narrative,  description  fulfills  an  important  function 
by  giving  useful  information  concerning  historic  periods, 
places,  and  peoples.  In  Irving's  Rip  Van  Winkle  and 
Legend  of  Sleepy  Hollow  we  learn  a  great  deal  through  the 
descriptions  about  the  beautiful  scenery  along  the  Hudson 
River  and  about  the  early  Dutch  settlers  in  New  York  ; 
in  Scott's  stories  we  are  carried  back  to  the  days  of  feu- 
dalism and  chivalry  in  England  and  in  Scotland. 

Description,  then,  constitutes  an  important  element  in 
story-telling  (1)  by  giving  a  background  for  incident  ; 
(2)  by  serving  as  an  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  character 
and  even  of  tlie  story  itself  ;  (3)  by  giving  useful  infor- 
mation through  the  setting. 

EXERCISES 

I.  To  what  kind  of  narrative  does  ScotV s.'-'- Ivayihoe''^  belong? 
What  are  the  chief  sources  of  interest  in  the  story?  In  how 
many  different  ways  does  Scott  give  due  emphasis  to  the  es- 
sential incidents  in  the  story?  How  can  you  distinguish  the 
minor  incidents  from  the  main  ones?  Recall  incidents  which 
depend  upon  effective  background  for  their  interest.  Recall 
descriptions  ivhich  aid  you  in  the  interpretation  of  character. 
Recall  descriptions  which  help  you  to  understand  the  story. 
Recall  descriptions  tvhich  give  you  useful  information  about 
the  historic  period  in  which  the  scenes  of  the  story  are  laid, 
about  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  people.,  and  about  their 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE 


271 


institutions  of  chivalry  and  feudalism.  Recall  descriptions 
of  nature  which  harmonize  ivith  the  mood  of  the  main 
character. 

II.  Mead  in  Jack  London's  '•'•The  Call  of  the  Wild"  the 
story  of  the  last  encounter  hetiveeii  the  rival  dogs.  Spitz  and 
Buck.  IIoiv  is  the  effect  of  the  incident  heightened?  Read 
in  '■'•Ben  Bur''''  the  description  of  the  chariot  race.  What  rela- 
tion does  the  desci'iption  hear  to  the  incident  itself?     Read 


'•'The  Passing  of  Arthur"  in  '•'•The  Idylls  of  the  King."  What 
office  does  description  serve  in  this  poem?  Apply  the  same 
question  to  Roe's  '■' Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. ^^ 

III.  (a)  Tell  how  two  acquaintances  of  this  duck  hunter 
mistook  the  decoys  in  the  picture  for  real  ducks.  You  may 
increase  the  interest  in  the  situation  by  making  one  of  these 
acquaintayices  a  cock-sure  individual  tvho  prides  himself  on  his 


272  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

superior  skill  and  keenness  of  vision.  Intermingle  descrip- 
tive touches  with  the  narration  of  the  incident.  Perhaps  you 
will  ivant  to  put  this  into  the  form  of  a  letter. 

(b)  Without  any  reference  to  the  preceding  assignment, 
tell  a  story  ivhich  the  picture  suggests  to  you. 

DESCRIPTION 

Description  is  a  form  of  discourse  which  is  intended  to 
produce  in  the  mind  of  the  reader  or  listener  the  same 
impression  of  an  object  which  he  would  get  from  the  ob- 
ject itself. 

If  the  purpose  of  a  description  is  to  arouse  a  feeling 
of  pleasure  or  any  emotion  which  a  picture  or  a  piece 
of  statuary  might  arouse,  we  call  it  artistic  or  literary 
description.  If  the  purpose  of  a  description  is  to  give 
accurate  and  useful  information  of  an  object,  we  call  it 
practical  or  scientific  description.  To  the  former  division 
belongs  most  of  the  description  which  we  find  in  poetry, 
in  prose,  in  stories,  in  orations,  in  essays,  in  books  of 
travel  —  in  short,  in  all  kinds  of  writing  Avliich  come 
under  the  head  of  literature.  To  the  latter  division  be- 
long descriptions  in  which  only  items  of  identification  — 
such  as  size,  shape,  color,  weight  —  are  generally  included. 
Let  us  examine  as  illustrations  of  the  two  divisions  the 
descriptions  given  below,  and  let  us  note  the  likenesses 
and  differences  between  them. 

1.  But  the  third  man  remained  obstinately  silent  under  all 
the  strokes  from  the  knotted  cord.  He  was  very  different  in 
aspect  from  his  two  fellow- prisoners.  They  were  young  and 
hardy,  and,  in  the  scant  clothing  which  the  avarice  of  their 
captors  had  loft  them,  looked  like  vulgar,  sturdy  mendicants. 
But  he  had  passed  the  boundary  of  old  age,  and  could  hardly 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  273 

be  less  than  four  or  five  and  sixty.  His  beard,  which  had 
grown  long  in  neglect,  and  the  hair  which  fell  thick  and  straight 
round  his  baldness,  were  nearly  white.  His  thick-set  figure  was 
still  firm  and  upright,  though  emaciated,  and  seemed  to  express 
energy  in  spite  of  age,  —  an  expression  that  was  partly  carried 
out  in  the  dark  eyes  and  strong,  dark  eyebrows,  which  had  a 
strangely  isolated  intensity  of  color  in  the  midst  of  his  yellow, 
bloodless,  deep-wrinkled  face  with  its  lank,  gray  hairs.  And 
yet  there  was  something  fitful  in  the  eyes  which  contradicted 
the  occasional  flash  of  energy  ;  after  looking  round  with  quick 
fierceness  at  Avindows  and  faces,  they  fell  again  with  a  lost  and 
"wandering  look.  But  his  lips  were  motionless,  and  he  held 
his  hands  resolutely  down.  —  George  Eliot  :  Romola. 

2.  AB  is  five  feet  five  inches  in  height,  and  corpulent.  His 
weight  is  approximately  one  hundred  and  fifty-five  or  sixty 
pounds.  He  seldom  stands  erect.  His  left  foot  is  a  club  foot; 
his  lower  left  limb  bends  outward  from  the  knee,  as  a  result 
of  improper  surgical  attention  following  an  injury.  The  left 
leg  appears  shorter  than  the  right,  and  he  limps  slightly. 

AB  is  about  thirty -five  years  of  age;  complexion,  medium 
dark ;  eyes,  dark  brown,  round,  squinty,  and  nervous  ;  eye- 
broAvs,  short  and  bushy ;  nose,  aquiline,  with  Romanish  sug- 
gestion ;  lips,  thick ;  two  front  teeth  missing  from  the  upper 
roof  of  mouth  ;  chin,  prominent  and  cleft.  He  wore  when  last 
seen  a  dark  brown  beard,  closely  trimmed.  His  hair  is  brown, 
a  shade  or  so  darker  than  his  beard.  The  hair  is  very  thin 
about  the  crown. 

Hands  are  closed ;  fingers  short  and  muscular  ;  nails  thick 
and  ill  kept. 

Education  poor ;  voice  is  heavy  and  articulation  is  faulty. 

The  literary  description  —  that  of  Baldassarre  —  is 
clearly  intended  to  convey  a  picture  which  will  arouse  an 
emotion  of  pity  and  a  strong  interest  in  the  character  of 
the  man.     The  practical  description  —  that  of  the  crimi- 

T 


274  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

nal  —  is  intended  only  to  convey  information  which  will 
help  to  identify  the  man  described.  In  both  descriptions 
we  get  impressions  of  figure,  complexion,  and  color  of 
hair  and  eyes.  In  the  first,  we  unconsciousl}'  construct 
from  the  details  a  complete  picture  of  lialdassarre,  which 
deeply  moves  us ;  in  the  general  impi-ession  to  which  the 
details  contribute  we  lose  sight  of  the  separate  items. 
From  the  second  description  we  are  not  so  likely  to 
construct  a  picture  as  to  hold  in  mind  the  se})arate 
items  which  are  intended  to  serve  for  identification  ;  we 
simply  think  of  each  detail  as  a  new  item  of  informa- 
tion. 

In  both  descriptions  only  sucli  detail  is  employed  as  is 
necessary  to  individualize  or  to  identify  the  man  described. 
From  the  description  of  Baldassarre  we  get  not  only  the 
general  impressions  of  figure,  hair,  eyes,  and  complex- 
ion, but  the  strongly  individualizing  impressions  of  his 
cliaracter  and  his  condition:  the  "long,  wliite  beard"  and 
'■'  lank,  gray  hairs  "  speak  of  old  age,  and  of  neglect  which 
has  grown  out  of  hopelessness  ;  the  "  firm,  u})right  figure," 
tiie  ''  dark  eyes,"  and  tlie  "  strong,  dark  eyebrows  "  "  seem 
to  express  energy  "  and  determined  purpose;  the  "yellow, 
bloodless,  deep-wrinkled  skin  "  tell  the  story  not  only  of 
old  age  and  ill  health  but  of  sorrow  and  care;  and  tlie 
"  fitful  change "  of  expression  in  the  dark  eyes  —  the 
change  from  the  "  quick,  fierce  glance "  to  the  "  last 
wandering  look"  —  betray  a  strong  will  struggling  with 
an  enfeebled  and  vacant  memory.  The  picture  is  full  of 
pathos;  and  only  such  details  have  been  employed  as 
would  arouse  tliat  feeling  in  tlie  mind  of  the  reader. 
From  tlie  second  description  we  get  tlie  same  general 
impressions,  but  the  details  do  not  coalesce  into  a  picture, 
and  hence  they  arouse  no  emotion  ;   they  are  given  for  the 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  275 

sole  purpose  of  information  that  will  lead  to  the  detection 
of  the  criminal. 

In  literary  description,  then,  the  details  are  so  presented 
as  to  form  a  picture,  and  so  emotionalized  as  to  arouse 
feeling ;  and  only  such  details  are  employed  as  are  nec- 
essary to  form  the  picture  and  arouse  the  emotion.  In 
practical  description  the  details  do  not  unite  into  a 
picture,  nor  do  they  arouse  emotion  ;  they  are  held  in 
mind  as  so  many  items  of  information  or  identification. 

EXERCISE 

Read  the  folloiving  descriptions.  To  tvhat  class  of  de- 
scription does  each  belong?  In  which  descriptions  are  the 
details  so  presented  as  to  form  a  single  picture  which  arouses 
emotion?  In  which  do  the  details  serve  as  items  of  informa- 
tion or  identification  ? 

1.  Pelleas  had  a  great  bulging,  powerful  forehead,  like  that 
of  Socrates  or  Verlaiue ;  and,  under  a  little  black  nose,  blunt 
as  a  churhsh  assent,  a  pair  of  large  hanging  and  symmetrical 
chops,  which  made  his  head  a  sort  of  massive,  obstinate,  pen- 
sive, and  three-cornered  menace.  He  was  beautiful  after  the 
manner  of  a  beautiful,  natural  monster  that  has  compHed 
strictly  with  the  laws  of  its  species.  And  what  a  smile  of 
attentive  obligingness,  of  incorruptible  innocence,  of  affection- 
ate submission,  of  boundless  gratitude,  and  total  self-abandon- 
ment lit  up,  at  the  least  caress,  that  adorable  mask  of 
ugliness !  Whence  exactly  did  that  smile  emanate  ?  From 
the  ingenuous  and  melting  eyes  ?  From  the  ears  pricked  up 
to  catch  the  words  of  man  ?  From  the  forehead  that  un- 
wrinkled  to  appreciate  and  love,  or  from  the  stump  of  a  tail 
that  wriggled  at  the  other  end  to  testify  to  the  intimate  and 
impassioned  joy  that  filled  his  small  being,  happy  once  more 
to  encounter  the  hand  or  the  glance  of  the  god  to  whom  he 
surrendered  himself  ? 


276  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Telleas  was  born  in  Paris,  and  I  had  taken  him  to  the 
country.  His  bonny  fat  paws,  shapeless  and  not  yet  stiffened, 
carried  slackly  through  the  unexplored  pathways  of  his  new 
existence  his  huge  and  serious  head,  flat-nosed  and,  as  it  were, 
rendered  heavy  with  thought. 

—  Maeterlinck:   Our  Friend  the  Dug. 

2.  Lost  :  A  brown  and  white  dog.  Weighs  eighteen  pounds. 
Head,  large  ;  body  and  feet,  small. 

3.  The  mountain  on  which  they  stood,  elevated,  perhaps,  a 
thousand  feet  in  the  air,  was  a  high  cone  that  rose  a  little  in 
advance  of  that  range  which  stretches  for  miles  along  the 
Avestern  shores  of  the  lake,  until  meeting  its  sister  piles  be- 
yond the  water,  it  ran  off  toward  the  Canadas,  in  confused  and 
broken  masses  of  rock,  thinly  sprinkled  with  evergreens.  Im- 
mediately at  the  feet  of  the  party,  the  southern  shore  of  the 
Horican  swept  in  a  broad  semicircle  from  mountain  to  moun- 
tain, marking  a  Avide  strand,  that  soon  rose  into  an  uneven  and 
somewhat  elevated  plain.  To  the  north  stretched  the  limpid, 
and,  as  it  appeared  from  that  dizzy  height,  the  narrow  sheet  of 
the  "  holy  lake,"  indented  with  numberless  bays,  embellished 
by  fantastic  headlands,  and  dotted  with  countless  islands.  At 
the  distance  of  a  few  leagues  the  bed  of  the  waters  became 
lost  among  mountains,  or  was  wrapped  in  the  masses  of  vapor 
that  came  slowly  rolling  along  their  bosom,  before  a  light 
morning  air.  But  a  narrow  opening  between  the  crests  of  the 
hills  pointed  out  the  passage  by  wdiich  they  found  their  way 
still  farther  north,  to  spread  their  pure  and  ami)le  sheets 
again,  before  pouring  out  their  tribute  into  the  distant  Cham- 
plain.  To  the  south  stretched  the  defile,  or  rather  broken 
plain,  so  often  mentioned.  For  several  miles  in  this  direction 
the  mountains  appeared  reluctant  to  yield  their  dominion,  but 
within  reach  of  the  eye  they  diverged,  and  finally  melted  into 
the  level  and  sandy  lands,  across  which  we  have  accompanied 
our  adventurers  in  their  double  journey.  Along  both  ranges 
of    hills,  which  bounded  the  opposite  sides  of   the   lake  and 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  277 

valley,  clouds  of  light  vapor  were  rising  in  spiral  wreaths  from 
the  uninhabited  woods,  looking  like  the  smoke  of  hidden  cot- 
tages; or  rolled  lazily  down  the  declivities,  to  mingle  with  the 
fogs  of  the  lower  land.  A  single,  solitary,  snow-white  cloud 
floated  above  the  valley,  and  marked  the  spot  beneath  which 
lay  the  silent  pool  of  the  "  bloody  pond." 

—  Cooper  :  Last  of  the  Mohicans. 

For  Sale:  One  of  the  best  farms  in  Hamilton  County, 
located  tive  miles  south  of  ISToblesville,  Kansas,  one  mile  east 
of  Brownsburg,  on  good  pike;  208  acres  level  land,  all 'in  cul- 
tivation except  16  acres  in  woods ;  good  fencing ;  good  eight- 
room  dwelling ;  fair  two-room  tenant  brick  ;  milk  and  smoke- 
houses, 12  X  24  ;  warm  house,  15  x  20 ;  60  x  70  barn ;  imple- 
ment house,  20  x  30  ;  implement  house  No.  2, 18  x  24  ;  double 
crib,  24  x  36;  hoghouse,  16  x  30;  woodhouse,  18  x  30 ;  good 
repair;  fruit  of  all  kinds;  one  mile  from  church  and  school; 
railroad  and  telephone  ;  half  interest  in  private  gas  well ;  four 
good  wells  of  water ;  cistern,  80-barrel  capacity ;  good  drainage. 
Will  sell  160  acres  with  improvements,  with  privilege  of  208. 
Reason  for  selling,  to  settle  an  estate.  Address  S.  C.  Milli- 
GAN,  Brownsburg,  Kansas. 

Qualities  Essential  to  Effective  Description.  —  Literary 
description,  which  it  is  our  purpose  to  discuss  in  this 
chapter,  must  be  characterized  by  the  same  qualities 
which  you  have  learned  are  essential  to  good  narration; 
namely,  the  qualities  of  unity,  coherence,  and  emphasis. 

UNITY   IN  DESCRIPTION 

Selection  of  Details. — When  only  sucli  details  are  em- 
ployed as  will  give  a  single  picture,  or  a  series  of  pictures 
arousing  a  single  emotion  —  an  emotion  it  may  be  of 
pity,  of  horror,  of  contempt,  of  anger,  of  admiration,  of 


278  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

sympiithy,  or  of  pleasure  —  we  say  that  tlie  description 
has  unity.  The  proper  selection,  then,  of  details  is  as  im- 
portant to  unity  in  description  as  it  is  to  unity  in  narra- 
tion. An  unnecessary  detail  included,  or  a  necessary  one 
excluded — each  is  equally  destructive  of  unity. 

PRINCIPLES   OF   GUIDANCE   IN   SELECTION 
OF  DETAILS 

Select  Individualizing  Details.  —  Here  the  question  natu- 
rally arises  as  to  the  principles  of  guidance  in  the  selec- 
tion of  detail  :  "  Why  must  I  select  this  detail,  and  why 
reject  that  detail  ?  "  In  answer  it  may  be  said,  first,  that 
only  such  details  must  be  employed  as  are  necessary  to 
individualize  the  object  described  —  to  separate  it  from 
all  other  objects  of  its  class.  In  order  to  do  this,  the 
writer  must  reject  what  is  common  to  all  the  objects  in  the 
class  to  which  the  particular  object  belongs,  and  he  must 
note  carefully  and  present  whatever  is  peculiar  or  distin- 
guishing. In  picturing  a  person,  for  instance,  the  writer, 
in  order  to  individualize  his  character,  may  use  such  de- 
tails as  "  slightly  drooping  shoulders,"  "  yellowish  green 
eyes  with  the  latent  gleams  of  the  tiger  in  them,"  "thin 
red  lips  tiglitening  over  large,  cruel-looking  white  teeth," 
"long,  slender  nails  curving  like  claws  over  the  bony 
fingers."  Such  details  as  are  common  to  all  men —  such 
as  the  reader  naturally  takes  for  granted — the  writer  omits, 
because  he  knows  that  the  reader  will  unconsciously  supply 
them,  and  also  because  he  knows  that  the  fewer  details 
the  reader  needs  to  hold  in  mind,  the  more  easily  can  he 
construct  a  whole  picture. 

Again,  in  ])icturing  a  ])et  dog  — a  French  poodle,  let  us 
say  —  the  writer  does  not  tell  us  that  he  is  of  such  size 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  279 

and  such  color,  and  that  his  hair  is  curly,  because  such 
items  would  not  individualize  the  dog- — would  not  sepa- 
rate him  from  any  other  French  poodle  ;  lie  rather  notes 
some  peculiar  mark  —  an  exceptional  softness  and  wdiite- 
ness  of  the  fleecy  covering,  a  roguish,  coquettish  look 
about  the  eyes  and  mouth,  or  an  unusual  daintiness  in 
the  little  upturned  nose.  The  class  details  the  reader 
unconsciously  unites  with  the  individualizing  ones  which 
the  writer  supplies,  and  thus  gets  a  unified  picture  of  the 
particular  dog  presented.  In  the  selection  of  details, 
then,  which  will  give  a  unified  picture,  the  writer  must 
include  what  is  peculiar  and  suggestive,  and  he  must  ex- 
clude whatever  the  reader  would  naturally  supply  —  that 
is,  the  common  and  undistinguishing. 

Selection  of  Details  Determined  by  Physical  Point  of 
View. — Again,  in  the  selection  of  detail  it  is  imj^jortant 
to  unity  to  keep  in  mind  another  guiding  principle  — 
namely,  that  only  such  details  should  be  included  in  a 
single  picture  as  the  writer  could  grasp  at  a  given  moment 
and  from  an  unchanging  point  of  view  of  tlje  object 
described.  In  describing  a  landscape  viewed  from  the 
top  of  some  hill,  the  writer  could  consistently  include  the 
wide  stretch  of  country  below  and  in  front  of  him  ;  he 
could  include  the  hills  farther  on  in  his  line  of  vision, 
and  still  farther  on  in  the  same  direction,  —  the  sunset. 
The  river,  the  camp,  and  the  woods  behind  him,  or  the 
town  in  the  distance  to  the  left  of  him,  he  could  not 
consistently  include.  He  could,  by  changing  his  point  of 
view,  —  by  turning  to  the  left  or  by  turning  around, — 
grasp  all  these  objects  or  any  others  coming  within  the 
circle  of  his  changing  vision  ;  and  he  could,  by  keeping 
his  changing  point  of  view  clear  to  the  reader,  present 
these  objects  in  a  single  description. 


280  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

But  the  description  would  give,  in  such  case,  not  a 
single  picture,  but  a  series  of  pictures.  Each  picture  in 
the  series  would  derive  its  unity  from  the  selection  of  such 
details  as  would  be  consistent  with  the  single  point  of  view. 
The  series  itself  would  necessarily  derive  its  unity  from 
the  singleness  of  purpose  in  the  mind  of  the  writer  and 
from  tlie  singleness  of  efTect  produced  by  the  series  upon 
tlie  feelings  of  the  reader. 

In  order  to  understand  the  unifying  principle  of  a  series 
of  pictures,  let  us  suppose,  for  example,  that  a  writer  wishes 
to  give  his  readers  the  quaint  effect  of  an  old-fashioned 
room.  The  description  which  he  gives  of  the  whole  room 
is  necessarily  made  up  of  a  series  of  pictures  seen  from 
different  points  of  view.  Standing  in  the  doorway  look- 
ing straight  ahead,  he  sees  the  old-fashioned  fireplace  with 
the  small-paned  high  windows  on  either  side ;  turning 
to  his  right,  he  sees  the  square  mahogany  table  with  its 
square  pedestal  and  short  curved  legs ;  turning  once  more, 
he  sees  to  the  left  the  queer  rocking  chairs  and  the  antique 
shelf  with  its  odd  ornaments.  The  fireplace  and  other 
objects  within  the  line  of  vision  in  which  the  fireplace 
comes,  constitute  one  picture  consistent  with  the  first  point 
of  view  of  the  room ;  the  square  mahogany  table  and  all 
other  objects  consistent  with  the  new  point  of  view  from 
which  the  table  is  seen,  constitute  another  picture ;  and 
the  furniture  to  the  left  constitutes  still  another.  Thus 
the  writer  really  gives  us  a  series  of  pictures ;  yet  the  de- 
scription has  unity,  because  it  grows  out  of  the  writer's 
single  desire  to  express  tlie  quaint  appearance  of  the  room, 
and  because  it  conveys  to  the  reader  a  feeling  of  pleasure 
in  the  quaintness  exjjressed.  Because  the  cliaiige  in  the 
point  of  view  is  so  rapid  and  so  unconscious,  and  because 
the  effect  produced  by  a  series  of  pictures  is  a  unified  im- 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  281 

pression,  we  often  think  of  the  series  as  forming  a  single 
picture. 

Again,  the  selection  of  details  for  a  picture  depends  not 
only  upon  the  direction  of  one's  view  point,  but  also  upon 
the  distance  from  which  an  object  is  seen.  A  sailing  ship 
seen  far  out  in  the  waters  looks  like  a  picture  painted  on 
the  horizon  ;  a  far-off  mountain  looks  like  a  cloud ;  land 
sighted  in  mid-ocean  resembles  a  faint  blue  line  ;  the  fo- 
liage of  trees  widely  separated  seems  to  meet  at  the  end 
of  a  long  avenue.  Only  the  prominent  features  of  objects 
seen  at  a  distance  stand  out  clearly,  and  even  these  at  a 
great  distance  lose  their  identity.  Therefore,  the  farther 
off  an  object  is  viewed,  the  more  easily  is  it  described  ;  for, 
in  giving  the  picture,  the  writer  needs  to  give  only  a  few 
large  details.  Minor  details  introduced  into  such  a  picture 
destroy  the  unity  of  the  description,  because  they  are  not 
consistent  with  the  writer's  remote  point  of  view. 

Again,  standing  directly  at  the  base  of  a  mountain,  one 
gets  a  very  partial  view  of  it ;  he  sees  only  a  small  portion 
of  the  lowest  part  of  one  side.  What  he  sees,  however, 
stands  out  in  minute  detail  —  even  the  different  shapes  of 
leaves  and  colors  of  flowers  and  the  kinds  of  insects  are 
clearly  discernible.  Standing  a  half  mile  away  from  the 
mountain,  one  gets  a  full  view  not  only  of  its  height  but  of 
its  rounded  sides ;  but  the  minor  details  are  lost.  The 
trees  and  flowers  lose  their  identity  in  the  mass  of  foliage 
and  the  blending  of  color  which  the  distant  view  presents. 
The  picture,  then,  which  one  standing  close  to  the  foot  of 
the  mountain,  would  give,  although  it  would  admit  of 
minute  detail,  would  necessarily  exclude  any  detail  con- 
cerning the  summit  and  the  rounded  side.  The  picture 
which  one  standing  at  a  distance  from  the  mountain  would 
give,  although  it  would  admit  details  concerning  the  sum- 


2S2  COiMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

niit  and  three  sides  of  the  mountain,  would  necessarily  ex- 
clude all  minor  details  concerning  any  part  of  it. 

Since  unity  of  description  depends  so  largely  upon  the 
point  of  view  from  which  objects  are  described,  it  is  essen- 
tial to  determine  just  wliat  points  of  view  are  most  favor- 
able to  effective  description.  If  the  purpose  of  the  writer 
is  to  give  a  large  ])icture,  he  must  choose  a  distant  point 
of  view  —  a  point  of  view  from  which  he  may  include,  in 
broad  outlines,  a  number  of  objects.  An  upper  window ; 
the  top  of  a  hill ;  a  bridge  spanning  a  stream  in  an  open 
country  ;  a  road  leading  along  a  high  bank  overlooking  a 
wide  stretch  of  meadows,  hills,  and  woods  ;  a  balloon  a 
half  mile  above  the  earth  —  all  of  these  afford  favorable 
points  of  view  for  large  pictures. 

If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  purpose  of  the  writer  is  to  give 
a  picture  full  of  close  or  minute  detail,  a  picture  which 
liiglily  individualizes  the  object  described,  he  must  choose 
a  nearer  point  of  view.  He  must  be  careful,  however,  not 
to  approach  so  close  to  the  object  to  be  described  that  he 
will  in  his  forced  attention  to  minor  details  lose  the  gen- 
eral outlines.  One  may  stand  so  close  to  an  object  as  to 
see  only  one  detail  —  tlie  color  of  the  flower,  perhaps,  or 
the  scar  upon  the  child's  forehead. 

Selection  of  Details  Determined  by  Mental  Point  of  View. 
—  Tliere  is  still  another  unifying  principle  governing  the 
selection  of  details  for  description  —  an  important  prin- 
ciple found  in  the  writer's  motive  or  purpose  in  the 
description,  or  in  the  predominant  emotion  which  the 
description  arouses  in  the  reader.  A  description  of 
the  symbolic  figure  of  Death  conceived  as  a  beautiful 
angel,  would  require  a  set  of  details  wholly  different 
from  the  details  employed  in  picturing  Death  as  a  grim 
monster.     In  the  one  description  only  such  details  would 


FORMS   OP   DISCOURSE  283 

be  employed  as  would  convey  impressions  of  the  sweetness, 
the  beauty,  the  spirituality  of  deatli  ;  in  the  other,  only 
such  details  as  would  arouse  a  feeling  of  fear,  of  dread,  or 
of  horror.  Again,  one  person  is  impressed  with  the  quiet 
beauty,  harmony,  and  peace  of  the  woods ;  another,  with 
the  bounding  life  and  joy  of  it ;  and  still  another,  with  its 
gorgeous  coloring.  The  first  one  would  likely  introduce 
into  his  picture,  "  clear,  cool  streams  with  glassy  bosoms," 
"  calm  shade,"  "  quiet,  peaceful  reflections,"  "  mossy  rocks 
and  trees,"  and  "gentle,  modest,  sleepy  flowers";  the 
second  might  tell  of  the  "  laughing,  gurgling  sound  of 
streams  sporting  over  rocky  beds,"  of  "  flowers  nodding 
gayly,  and  branches  waving  and  bending  joyfully  in  the 
wind";  of  the  "busy  hum  of  insects,"  and  the  "happy 
songs  of  birds";  the  third  would  probably  make  use  of 
sunshine  filtering  through  the  leaves  and  sparkling  on 
the  water;  of  the  gayly-colored  birds,  and  flowers  and 
insects,  and  painted  leaves. 

Thus  you  can  see  that  the  details  in  the  three  different 
pictures  of  the  same  scene  would  vary  in  accordance  with 
the  different  aspects  presented,  or  with  the  different 
motives  in  the  minds  of  the  writers.  Should  the  first 
writer,  whose  purpose  it  is  to  express  the  beauty,  peace, 
and  harmony  of  the  woods,  tell  in  addition  of  the  bound- 
ing life  and  of  the  gorgeous  coloring,  his  picture  would 
not  be  consistent  with  his  motive  ;  it  would  convey  con- 
tradictory impressions,  and  hence  would  lack  unity.  A 
similar  violation  of  this  principle  would  destroy,  in  like 
manner,  the  unity  of  the  other  two  pictures. 

In  summing  up  briefly  the  preceding  discussion  of  unity 
in  description,  it  may  be  said  (1)  that  unity  depends 
upon  the  proper  selection  of  details ;  (2)  that  a  proper 
selection  of  details  consists  in  choosing  what  is  essential 


284  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

and  distinguishing  ;  (3)  tliat  the  proper  selection  of  details 
depends  partly  upon  the  point  of  view  from  which  the 
picture  is  given,  and  parti}'  upon  the  motive  in  the  mind 
of  the  writer  —  that  is,  ui)on  the  particular  impression  or 
the  single  effect  which  he  wishes  to  convey;  (4)  that  the 
point  of  view  must  be  clear  to  the  mind  of  the  reader 
—  and  particularly  any  change  in  the  point  of  view. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Read  the  following  description  of  a  cotfar/e.  Note 
carefully  the  details  of  the  description.  Are  they  so  selected 
as  to  give  individuality  to  the  cottaye  described?  Name  five 
details  which  stronyly  individualize  the  cottaye.  What  is 
the  point  of  view  from  which  the  cottaye  is  described  ?  What 
advantaye  does  this  point  of  view  afford?  Are  all  the  details 
consistent  with  the  writer  s  p>oint  of  view?  Can  you  judge 
approximately,  from  the  details  employed.,  of  the  distance 
from  ivldch  the  scene  is  viewed?  What  details  ivoidd  be 
inconsistent  with  a  remote  point  of  vieiv?  What  particular 
impression  of  the  scene  does  Poe  wish  to  convey?  What 
details  employed  contribute  to  this  eff'ect? 

The  point  of  view  from  which  I  first  saw  the  valley  was 
not  altogether,  although  it  Avas  nearly,  the  best  point  from 
which  to  survey  the  liouse.  I  will  therefore  describe  it  as  I 
afterward  saw  it  —  from  a  position  on  the  stone  wall  at  the 
southern  extreme  of  the  amphitheater. 

The  main  building  was  about  twent3'-four  feet  long  and 
sixteen  broad  —  certainly  not  more.  Its  total  height,  from  the 
ground  to  the  apex  of  the  roof,  could  not  have  exceeded  eigh- 
teen feet.  To  the  west  end  of  this  structure  was  attached  one 
about  a  third  smaller  in  all  its  proportions:  the  line  of  its 
front  standing  liaek  about  two  vards  from  that  of  the  larger 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE  285 

house;  and  the  line  of  its  roof,  of  course,  being  considerably 
depressed  below  that  of  the  roof  adjoining.  At  right  angles 
to  these  buildings,  and  from  the  rear  of  the  main  one,  not 
exactly  in  the  middle,  extended  a  third  compartment,  very 
small  —  being,  in  general,  one-third  less  than  the  western  wing. 
The  roofs  of  the  two  larger  were  very  steep,  sweeping  down 
from  the  ridge-beam  with  a  long  concave  curve,  and  extending 
at  least  four  feet  beyond  the  walls  in  front,  so  as  to  form  the 
roofs  of  two  piazzas.  These  latter  roofs,  of  course,  needed  no 
support;  but  as  they  had  the  air  of  needing  it,  slight  and 
perfectly  plain  pillars  were  inserted  at  the  corners  alone.  The 
roof  of  the  northern  wing  was  merely  an  extension  of  a 
portion  of  the  main  roof.  Between  the  chief  building  and 
western  wing  arose  a  very  tall  and  rather  slender  square 
chimney  of  hard  Dutch  bricks,  alternately  black  and  red 
—  a  slight  cornice  of  projecting  bricks  at  the  top.  Over  the 
gables  the  roofs  also  projected  very  much :  in  the  main 
building,  about  four  feet  to  the  east  and  two  to  the  west.  The 
principal  door  was  not  exactly  in  the  main  division,  being  a 
little  to  the  east,  while  the  two  windows  were  to  the  west. 
These  latter  did  not  extend  to  the  floor,  but  were  much  longer 
and  narrower  than  usual  —  they  had  single  shutters  like  doors  ; 
the  panes  were  of  lozenge  form,  but  qvute  large.  The  door 
itself  had  its  upper  half  of  glass,  also  in  lozenge  panes  —  a 
movable  shutter  secured  it  at  night.  The  door  to  the  west 
wing  was  in  its  gable,  and  quite  simple  —  a  single  window 
looked  out  to  the  south.  There  was  no  external  door  to  the 
north  wing,  and  it,  also,  had  only  one  window  to  the  east. 

The  blank  wall  of  the  eastern  gable  was  relieved  by  stairs 
(with  a  balustrade)  running  diagonally  across  it — the  ascent 
being  from  the  south.  Under  cover  of  the  widely  projecting 
eave  these  steps  gave  access  to  a  door  leading  into  the  garret, 
or  rather  loft;  for  it  was  lighted  only  by  a  single  window  to 
the  north,  and  seemed  to  have  been  intended  as  a  store- 
room. 


286  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

The  piazzas  of  the  main  building  and  western  wing  had  no 
floors,  as  is  usual ;  but  at  the  doors  and  at  each  Avindow,  large, 
flat,  irregular  slabs  of  granite  lay  imbedded  in  the  delicious 
turf,  affording  comfortable  footing  in  all  weather.  Excellent 
paths  of  the  same  material — not  nicely  adapted,  but  with  the 
velvety  sod  filling  frequent  intervals  between  the  stones  —  led 
hither  and  thither  from  the  house  to  a  crystal  spring  about 
five  paces  off,  to  the  road,  or  to  one  or  two  outhouses  that 
lay  to  the  north,  beyond  the  brook,  and  were  thoroughly  con- 
cealed by  a  few  locusts  and  catalpas. 

Not  more  than  six  steps  from  the  main  door  of  the  cottage 
stood  the  dead  trunk  of  a  fantastic  pear  tree,  so  clothed  from 
head  to  foot  in  the  gorgeous  begonia  blossoms  that  one  re- 
quired no  little  scrutiny  to  determine  what  manner  of  sweet 
thing  it  could  be.  From  various  arms  of  this  tree  hung  cages 
of  different  kinds.  In  one,  a  large  wicker  cylinder  with  a  ring 
at  top,  reveled  a  mocking-bird;  in  another,  an  oriole;  in  a 
third,  the  impudent  bobolink — while  three  or  four  more  deli- 
cate prisons  were  loudly  vocal  with  canaries. 

The  pillars  of  the  piazza  were  enwreathed  in  jasmine  and 
sweet  honeysuckle  ;  while  from  the  angle  formed  by  the  main 
structure  and  its  west  wing,  in  front,  sprang  a  grapevine 
of  unexampled  luxuriance.  Scorning  all  restraint,  it  had 
clambered  first  to  the  lower  roof,  then  to  the  higher;  and 
along  the  ridge  of  this  latter  it  continued  to  writhe  on,  throw- 
ing out  tendrils  to  the  right  and  left,  until  at  length  it  fairly 
attained  the  east  gable,  and  fell  trailing  over  the  stairs. 

The  whole  house,  with  its  wings,  was  constructed  of  the  old- 
fashioned  Dutch  shingles  —  broad,  and  with  unrounded  corners. 
It  is  a  peculiarity  of  this  material  to  give  houses  built  of  it  the 
appearance  of  being  wider  at  bottom  than  at  top — after  the 
manner  of  Egyptian  architecture ;  and  in  the  present  instance 
this  exceedingly  picturesque  effect  was  aided  by  numerous  pots 
of  gorgeous  flowers  that  almost  encompassed  the  base  of  the 
buildings. 


FORMS    OF    DISCOURSE  287 

The  shingles  were  painted  a  dull  gray,  and  the  happiness 
with  which  this  neutral  tint  melted  into  the  vivid  green  of  the 
tulip  tree  leaves  that  partially  overshadowed  the  cottage  can 
readily  be  conceived  by. an  artist. 

From  the  position  near  the  stone  wall,  as  described,  the 
buildings  were  seen  at  great  advantage, —  for  the  southeastern 
angle  was  thrown  forward,  —  so  that  the  eye  took  in  at  once  the 
whole  of  the  two  fronts,  with  the  picturesque  eastern  gable, 
and  at  the  same  time  obtained  just  a  sufficient  glimpse  of  the 
northern  wing,  with  parts  of  a  pretty  roof  to  the  spring  house, 
and  nearly  half  of  a  light  bridge  that  spanned  the  brook  in  the 
near  vicinity  of  the  main  buildings.  — Poe:  Landor's  Cottage. 

II.  In  the  following  description,  Hmvtiiorne  pictures  the 
happy  peace,  brightness,  and  magic  of  the  early  morning. 
What  details  strongly  convey  these  impressions f  Is  it  a 
physical  point  of  view  from  which  the  scene  is  described,  oris 
it  from  the  point  of  view  of  a  mental  impression  of  the  morn- 
ing? What  particular  emotion  does  the  picture  arouse? 
What  is  the  unifying  principle  in  the  description? 

The  early  sunshine  was  already  pouring  its  gold  upon  the 
mountain  tops  ;  and  though  the  valleys  were  still  in  shadow, 
they  smiled  cheerfully  in  the  promise  of  the  bright  day  that 
was  hastening  onward.  The  village,  completely  shut  in  by 
hills,  which  swelled  away  gently  about  it,  looked  as  if  it  had 
rested  peacefully  in  the  hollow  of  the  great  hand  of  Providence. 
Every  dwelling  was  distinctly  visible ;  the  little  spires  of  the 
two  churches  pointed  upward,  and  caught  a  fore-glimmering  of 
brightness  from  the  sun-gilt  skies  upon  their  gilded  weather- 
cocks. The  tavern  was  astir,  and  the  figure  of  the  old,  smoke- 
dried  stage-agent,  cigar  in  mouth,  was  seen  beneath  the  stoop. 
Old  Graylock  was  glorified  with  a  golden  cloud  upon  his  head. 
Scattered  likewise  over  the  breasts  of  the  surrounding  moun- 
tains, there  were  heaps  of  hoary  mist,  in  fantastic  shapes, 
some  of  them  far  down  into  the  valley,  others  high  up  toward 


288  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

the  summits,  and  still  others,  of  the  same  family  of  mist  or 

cloud,  hovering  in  the  gold  radiance  of  the  upper  atmosphere. 

Stepping  from  one  to  another  of  the  clouds  that  rested  on  the 

hills,  and  thence  to  the  loftier  brotherhood  that  sailed  in  air, 

it  seemed  almost  as  if  a  mortal  man  might  thus  ascend  into  the 

heavenly  regions.     Earth  was  so  mingled  with  sky  that  it  was 

a  day  dream  to  look  at  it. 

—  Nathaniel  IIawtiiohm;  :  Ethan  Brand. 

III.  Criticise  the  lis e  of  tlte  foUowiii;/  details  in  pictures 
given  from  different  poi)its  of  view  : 

1.  View-point — top  of  a  high  steeple. 

Details  —  Powder  on  the  rusty  coat  of  a  man  standing  in  the 
street  below,  a  hundred  yards  away  from  the  steeple  —  a  young 
man  below  restlessly  slapping  his  left  hand  with  a  brown  glove 
which  he  holds  in  his  right  hand. 

2.  View-point  —  position  close  to  and  directly  in  front  of  a 
large  building. 

Details  —  peculiar  slope  of  roof;  decoration  on  the  frieze, 
beneath  the  cornice  ;  tower  forming  a  part  of  the  left  side  of 
the  building. 

3.  Mental  view-point  —  that  of  a  region  of  dreamy  enchant- 
ment. 

Details — boys  whistling  merrily  ;  rattling  vehicles  ;  stout, 
jolly  men  and  women. 

IV.  1.  Wame  five  details  lohich  you  icould  cmploii  in 
characterizing  the  face  of  a  friend.  Five  which  yon  would 
use  in  describiw/  a  pet  dog,  or  pony,  or  kitten.  Five  which 
you  tvould  use  in  describing  some  old  fashioned  piece  of 
furniture. 

2.  Descrihe  a  river  seen  from  the  top  of  a  hill  forty  rods 
aivay.  Descrihe  the  same  river  as  seen  from  the  edge  of  one 
of  its  banks. 

3.  What  details  would  you  use  in  a  description  intended  to 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE 


289 


express  the  coziness  and  comfort  of  a  room;  the  uncanny 
atmosphere  of  some  dreary  old  house  ;  the  beauty  and  rest  of 
a  summer  evening  in  the  country  ;  the  excitement  of  a  storm 
at  sea  ? 

V.  You  may  take  your  choice  of  one  of  two  possible  com- 
positions. Either  describe  this  picture,  or  describe  an  actual 
landscape  which  is  suggested  by  this  picture. 


■**^7?!~"*  ^ 


Jf  you  attempt  an  actual  description  of  this  scene.,  do  not 
allow  your  composition  to  be  a  mere  catalogue  of  the  details. 
^Select  such  essentials  as  the  pumpkins,  the  shocks  of  fodder,  the 
trees,  the  hills  in  the  distance,  and  try  to  intermingle  with  them 
all  the  spirit  of  the  autumn  day.  Take  your  stand  as  an 
observer  in  the  foreground,  and  re-fuse  to  yield  to  any  temp- 
tation to  move  from  that  position.  Should  you  wish  to  go  to 
the  top  of  the  hill  and  describe  the  scene  from  that  stand- 
point, reserve  that  vieiv  for  another  composition. 


290  coMru.siTiox  and  rhetoric 

If  you  choose  to  describe  a  scene  srigi/csted  by  this  picture, 
a  wider  choice  is  ojf'ered.  Perhaps  the  scene  may  be  made 
more  picturesque  by  the  addition  of  an  old  fashioned  rail 
fence,  by  a  river,  or  by  a  road  winding  near.  Perhaps  you 
may  imagine  yourself  in  the  ivagon  which  collected  the  pump- 
kins and  the  corn.  There  were  sensations  of  color, — yellow 
and  broivn  and  gray  and  red.  There  ivere  crackling  sounds 
of  fodder  and  the  soft  crunching  of  gravelly  soil.  Remember 
that  the  reader  of  your  theme  can  get  vivid  sensations  only 
through  vivid  ivords. 

COHERENCE   AND  EMPHASIS   IN   DESCRIPTION 

Unity  in  description,  as  has  been  said,  depends  upon  a 
proper  selection  of  details — a  selection  of  details  consistent 
with  the  writer's  point  of  view,  and  adequate  to  convey 
the  particular  impressions  which  he  wishes  to  express  to 
the  reader.  The  details,  then,  having  been  wisely  selected, 
it  remains  to  the  writer  to  give  to  them  such  order  in 
arrangement  that  the  relation  between  the  parts  will  be 
cl^ar  to  the  reader,  and  such  proportion  of  treatment  to 
each  separate  detail  that  its  importance  in  the  description 
will  be  unmistakable.  When  the  details  of  a  description 
are  so  arranged  that  the  reader  can  readily  construct  from 
them  a  picture  or  a  series  of  pictures,  or  when  they  are  so 
arranged  that  he  gets  the  writer's  exact  impression  of  an 
object  or  scene,  the  description  has  coherence.  When  the 
details  are  so  arranged  and  so  treated  that  the  important 
ones  stand  out  clearly  from  the  minor  ones,  the  description 
has  emphasis. 

Coherence:  how  Secured.  —  Just  what  plan  a  writer 
shouhl  employ  in  order  to  secure  coherence  in  a  given 
description,  it  is  difficult  to   suggest.     It   may  be    said, 


FORMS    OF    DISCOURSE  291 

however,  that,  in  general,  he  should  begin  with  the  strik- 
ing features  of  an  object,  or  give  a  general  impression  of 
it  at  the  start.  Proceeding  from  these  larger  features 
and  general  impressions,  he  should  give  details  in  the 
order  which  seems  logical  and  natural  to  him.  Haw- 
thorne, for  example,  in  describing  the  peculiar  visuil  im- 
pression made  by  a  mass  of  rocks  thrown  together  on  the 
side  of  a  mountain,  tells  us,  first  of  all,  that  the  rocks 
were  so  arranged  as,  at  a  distance,  to  form  the  image  of  a 
human  countenance.  Proceeding  from  this  general  im- 
pression he  arranges  respectively  in  order  the  details  of 
forehead,  nose,  and  lips,  noting  in  each  its  individual- 
izing marks, — the  "broad  arch  of  the  forehead,"  the 
"  long  bridge  of  the  nose,"  and  the  "  vastness  of 
the  lips."  Lastly  he  pictures  the  glorified  vapor  of 
the  mountains  clustering  abont  the 'face  and  making  it 
seem  alive. 

Note  how  the  arrangement  of  details  in  the  following 
description  selected  from  James  Lane  Allen's  The  Reign 
of  iaw  differs  from  Hawthorne's  plan  in  the  description 
referred  to  above : 

Some  sixty-five  years  latei',  one  hot  day  of  midsummer  in 
1865  —  one  Saturday  afteruoon  —  a  lad  was  cutting  weeds  in 
a  woodland  pasture ;  a  big,  raw-boned,  demure  lad  of  near 
eighteen. 

He  had  on  heavy  shoes,  the  toes  green  with  grass  stain ; 
the  leather  so  seasoned  by  morning  dews  as  to  be  like  wood 
for  hardness.  These  were  to  keep  his  feet  protected  from 
briers  or  from  the  bees  scattered  upon  the  wild  white  clover 
or  from  the  terrible  hidden  thorns  of  the  honey  locust.  No 
socks.  A  pair  of  scant  homespun  trousers  long  outgrown. 
A  coarse,  clean  shirt.  His  big  shock  head  thatched  with 
yellow  straw,  a  dilapidated  sun  and  rain  shed. 


292  CU.MroSlTlON    ASD    RUETURIC 

Each  writer,  it  will  be  seen,  gives  a  general  impression 
in  the  beginning,  and  each,  in  arranging  the  succeeding 
details,  observes  the  order  which  seems  logical  and  natural 
to  him.  To  Hawthorne  it  seemed  natural,  as  it  would 
seem  to  most  of  us,  to  describe  the  upper  part  of  the  face, 
then  the  middle,  and  lastly  the  lower  part.  To  Allen  an 
unusual  arrangement  suggests  itself ;  in  giving  the  details 
of  dress,  he  first  describes  the  shoes,  then  the  trousers, 
shirt,  and  hat  in  turn.  Both  descriptions,  however,  are 
coherent,  because  both  writers  have  given  orderly  arrange- 
ment to  the  details  of  their  pictures.  Had  Hawthorne 
mentioned  the  forehead,  then  the  lips,  then  the  glorified 
vapor,  and,  lastly,  the  nose,  his  description  would  have 
been  confusing  and  incoherent.  A  similar  violation  of 
orderly  arrangement  of  details  in  the  second  description 
would  have  made  it  likewise  incoherent. 

It  has  been  frequently  suggested  that  a  writer  may 
secure  coherence  by  noting  first  such  details  of  an  object 
or  a  scene  as  would  impress  him,  at  a  distance,  and  by 
arranging  the  succeeding  details  in  the  order  in  which 
they  would  impress  one  gradually  approaching  tlie  object 
or  scene.  In  desci-iptions  of  persons,  for  example,  height, 
l)nil(l,  posture,  and  general  bearing  —  items  wliicli  impress 
us  at  a  distance  —  are  generally  noted  in  the  beginning  ; 
then  follow  the  individualizing  details  —  the  marked 
peculiarities  in  dress  and  features.  Although  the  writer 
in  such  a  description  may  be  giving  the  picture  from 
an  unchanging  point  of  view,  he  has  secured  coherence 
by  giving  such  order  of  arrangement  to  details  as  an 
approaching  view  would  suggest.  Such  a  method  is 
founded  upon  a  well-established  principle  in  psychology 
—  that  of  proceeding  from  the  general  to  the  particular. 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  293 


EXERCISES 

I.  Write  a  descriptio7i  expressing  contrast  between  the  two 
types  of  ivomanhood  pictured  in  Jeanne  If  Arc  on  page  257, 
and  in  tlie  peasant  woman  who  forms  the  central  figure  of  the 
picture  on  page  259.  In  your  description^  note  the  difference 
in  size^  in  attitude,  in  features,  and  in  expression,  and  make 
use  of  such  details  as  short,  thick  neck;  tvide,  heavy  jaws  ; 
high  cheek  bones;  weak  chin;  month  half  open;  dull, 
staving  eyes;  eyes  uplifted  to  heaven;  full,  sensitive  lips  ; 
melancholy  droop  of  the  tnoutli.  In  the  picture  of  Jeanne 
DArc,  you  see  refected  the  heautifid  spirit  of  a  lofty  ivoman  ; 
in  the  picture  of  the  peasant  woman  you  see  the  low  men- 
tality and  the  apathy  which  poverty  and  repression  often 
bring.  Let  the  detail  in  your  picture  be  so  combined  that 
your  readers  will  feel  that  difference. 

II.  JVote  the  arrangement  of  details  in  the  following  de- 
scriptions. Do  you  get  a  general  impression  in  the  beginning 
of  each  description  ?  Do  the  details  become  more  specific  as 
you  read  along  ?  Would  you  change  the  order  of  details  ? 
Wfiat  effect  tvould  an  inversion  of  the  order  of  details  have 
upon  the  description? 

The  Faun  is  the  marble  image  of  a  young  man,  leaning  his 
right  arm  on  the  trunk  or  stump  of  a  tree ;  one  hand  hangs 
carelessly  by  his  side ;  in  the  other  he  holds  the  fragment  of  a 
pipe,  or  some  such  sylvan  instrument  of  music.  His  only  gar- 
ment—  a  lion's  skin,  with  the  claws  upon  his  shoulder  —  falls 
halfway  down  his  back,  leaving  the  limbs  and  entire  front 
of  the  figure  nude.  The  form,  thus  displayed,  is  marvelously 
graceful,  but  has  a  fuller  and  more  rounded  outline,  more  flesh, 
and  less  of  heroic  muscle,  than  the  old  sculptors  were  wont  to 
assign  to  their  types  of  masculine  beauty.  The  character  of 
the  face  corresponds  with  the  figure ;  it  is  most  agreeable  in 


294  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

outline  and  feature,  but  rounded  and  soniewliat  voluptuously 
developed,  especially  about  the  throat  and  chin ;  the  nose  is 
almost  straight,  but  very  slightly  curves  inward,  thereby  ac- 
quiring an  indescribable  charm  of  geniality  and  humor.  The 
mouth,  Avith  its  full  yet  delicate  lips,  seems  so  nearly  to  smile 
outright,  that  it  calls  forth  a  responsive  smile.  The  whole 
statue  —  unlike  anything  else  that  ever  Avas  wrought  in  that 
severe  material  of  marble  —  conveys  the  idea  of  an  amiable 
and  sensual  creature,  easy,  mirthful,  apt  for  jollity,  yet  not 
incapable  of  being  touched  by  pathos. 

—  Hawthorne:   The  Marble  Faun. 

The  stranger  was  of  exceedingly  picturesque,  and  even 
melodramatic  aspect.  He  was  clad  in  a  voluminous  cloak,  that 
seemed  to  be  made  of  a  buffalo's  hide,  and  a  pair  of  those  goat- 
skin breeches,  with  hair  outward,  which  are  still  commonly  worn 
by  the  peasants  of  the  Eoman  Campagna.  In  this  garb  they 
look  like  antique  Satyrs;  and,  in  truth,  the  Specter  of  the 
Catacomb  might  have  represented  the  last  survivor  of  that 
vanished  race,  hiding  himself  in  sepulchral  gloom,  and  mourn- 
ing over  his  lost  life  of  woods  and  streams. 

Furthermore,  he  had  on  a  broad-brimmed,  conical  hat,  be- 
neath the  shadow  of  which  a  wild  visage  was  indistinctly  seen, 
floating  away,  as  it  were,  into  a  dusky  wilderness  of  mustache 
and  beard.  His  eyes  winked,  and  turned  uneasily  from  the 
torches,  like  a  creature  to  whom  midnight  would  be  more  con- 
genial than  noonday. —  Hawthorne:    Tlie  Marble  Fann. 

To  obtain  a  distincter  view,  Bartram  threw  open  the  iron 
door  of  the  kiln,  whence  immediately  issued  a  gush  of  fierce 
light,  that  smote  full  upon  the  stranger's  face  and  figure.  To 
a  careless  eye  there  appeared  nothing  very  remarkable  in  his 
aspect,  which  was  that  of  a  man  in  a  coarse,  brown,  country- 
made  suit  of  clothes,  tall  and  thin,  Avith  the  staff  and  heavy 
shoes  of  a  wayfarer.  As  he  advanced,  he  fixed  his  eyes — which 
were  very  bright— intently  upon  the  brightness  of  the  furnace. 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  295 

as  if  he  beheld,  or  expected  to  behold,  some  object  worthy  of 
note  within  it. 

*  *  *  *  *  *  * 

The  little  boy,  all  in  a  tremble,  whispered  to  his  father,  and 
begged  him  to  shut  the  door  of  the  kiln,  so  that  there  might 
not  be  so  much  light;  for  that  there  was  something  in  the 
man's  face  which  he  was  afraid  to  look  at,  yet  could  not 
look  away  from.  And,  indeed,  even  the  lime-burner's  dull  and 
torpid  sense  began  to  be  impressed  by  an  indescribable  some- 
thing in  that  thin,  rugged,  thoughtful  visage,  with  the  grizzled 
hair  hanging  wildly  about  it,  and  those  deeply  sunken  eyes, 
which  gleamed  like  fires  within  the  entrance  of  a  mysteri- 
ous cavern.  But,  as  he  closed  the  door,  the  stranger  turned 
towards  him,  and  spoke  in  a  quiet,  familiar  way,  that  made 
Bartram  feel  as  if  he  were  a  sane  and  sensible  man,  after  all. 

—  Hawthorne:  Ethan  Brand. 

At  the  beginning  of  October,  1815,  and  about  an  hour  before 

sunset,  a  man  traveling  on  foot  entered  the  little  town  of  D 

The  few  inhabitants,  who  were  at  the  moment  at  their  windows 
or  doors,  regarded  this  traveler  with  a  species  of  anxiety.  It 
would  be  difficult  to  meet  a  wayfarer  of  more  wretched  appear- 
ance; he  was  a  man  of  middle  height,  muscular  and  robust, 
and  in  the  full  vigor  of  life.  He  might  be  forty-six  to  forty- 
eight  years  of  age.  A  cap  with  a  leather  peak  partly  concealed 
his  sunburnt  face,  down  which  the  perspiration  streamed. 
His  shirt  of  coarse  yellow  calico,  fastened  at  the  neck  by  a 
small  silver  anchor,  allowed  his  hairy  chest  to  be  seen;  he  had 
on  a  neck-cloth  twisted  like  a  rope,  trousers  of  blue  ticking, 
worn  and  threadbare,  white  at  one  knee  and  torn  at  the  other ; 
an  old  gray  ragged  blouse,  patched  at  one  elbow  with  a  rag  of 
green  cloth  ;  on  his  back  a  large,  new,  well-filled  knapsack,  and 
a  large  knotty  stick  in  his  hand.  His  stockingless  feet  were 
thrust  into  iron-shod  shoes,  his  hair  was  cut  close  and  his 
beard  large.  Perspiration,  heat,  traveling  on  foot,  and  the  dust 
added  something  sordid  to  his  wretched  appearance.     His  hair 


296  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

was  cut  close  and  yet  was  bristling,  for  it  was  beginning  to  grow 
a  little,  and  did  not  seem  to  have  been  cut  for  some  time. 

— Victor  Hugo:   Les  Miserables. 

III.  (a)  The  indomitable  spirit  of  Napoleon  and  his  nngle- 
ness  of  purpose  are  expressed  in  almost  every  detail  in  the 
picture  on  the  opposite  page.  What  details  in  the  figure  of 
the  rider  himself  contributed  to  this  idea  ?  Note  his  posture 
in  the  saddle,  his  eyes,  his  mouth,  his  outstretched  hands  and 
pointing  fingers.  Note,  too,  his  utter  indifference  to  awful 
dangers  in  his  way.  What  details  in  the  figure  of  the  horse 
suggest  that  the  splendid  animal  is  inspired  by  the  master  s 
spirit?  Note  the  firmly  planted  feet,  the  braced  haunches 
the  straining  muscles  in  the  breast  and  neck,  the  tense  body, 
the  dilated  nostrils,  and  the  almost  human  eye.  Describe  the 
picture  as  you  wotdd  describe  it  to  one  u'ho  has  never  seen  it. 

(h)  Write  an  imaginary  talk  in  which  Napoleon  addresses 
now  his  followers,  now  his  horse,  and  now  himself.  Let  your 
composition  reflect  the  unconquerable  spirit  and  determined 
purpose  of  the  great  leader. 

Grouping. — Again  it  has  been  suggested  that,  in  giving 
a  large  picture  —  one  into  which  a  number  of  individual 
objects  enter  as  parts — the  writer  may  secure  coherence 
by  grouping  around  some  prominent  or  striking  detail 
the  other  features  or  details.  A  table  in  the  center  of  a 
room,  or  a  fireplace  in  one  corner ;  an  old-fashioned  church 
in  a  village ;  a  lake,  a  river,  a  camp,  a  meadow  in  the 
midst  of  a  landscape  —  such  details  as  these  form  good 
starting  points  in  description,  around  which  features,  or 
in  relation  to  which,  other  objects  may  be  grouped. 

Often,  where  the  purpose  of  a  writer  is  to  convey  some 
particular  impression  of  a  character  or  some  prevailing 
characteristic  of  a  scene,  where  the  purpose  is  to  arouse 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE 


297 


some  special  emotion  or  to  convey  some  particular  effect 
rather  than  to  give  a  definite  picture  —  the  writer  first  gives 


the  general  impression,  then  the  amplifying  details  in  the 
order  best  suited  to  his  })urpose. 


298  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I.  In  accordance  with  ivhat  jjlans  are  the  details  in  the 
following  descriptions  arranged  P  Is  each  detail  ^o  arranged 
as  to  help  co}ivey  the  general  impression?  Is  the  general 
impression  conveyed  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end,  or  must 
g  021  get  it  from  all  the  details? 

It  was,  as  I  have  said,  a  line  autuiiiual  clay;  the  sky  was  clear 
and  serene,  and  nature  wore  that  rich  and  golden  livery  wliich 
we  always  associate  with  the  idea  of  abundance.  The  forests 
had  put  on  their  sober  brown  and  yellow,  while  some  trees  of 
the  tenderer  kind  had  been  nipped  by  the  frosts  into  brilliant 
dyes  of  orange,  pnrple,  and  scarlet.  Streaming  files  of  wild 
ducks  began  to  make  their  appearance  high  in  the  air;  the  bark 
of  the  squirrel  might  be  heard  from  the  groves  of  beech  and 
hickory  nuts,  and  the  pensive  whistle  of  the  quail  at  intervals 
from  the  neighboring  stubble  field. 

The  small  birds  were  taking  their  farewell  banquets.  In 
the  fullness  of  their  revelry,  they  fluttered,  chirping  and  frolick- 
ing, from  bush  to  bush,  and  tree  to  tree,  capricious  from  the 
very  profusion  and  variety  around  them.  There  was  the  honest 
cock-robin,  the  favorite  game  of  stripling  sportsmen,  with  its 
loud,  querulous  note;  and  the  twittering  blackbirds  flying  in 
sable  clouds ;  and  the  golden-winged  woodpecker,  with  his 
crimson  crest,  his  broad,  black  gorget,  and  splendid  plumage; 
and  the  cedar  bird,  with  its  red-tipt  wings  and  yellow-tipt  tail, 
and  its  little  montero  cap  of  feathers;  and  the  blue  jay,  that 
noisy  coxcomb,  in  his  gay,  light  blue  coat  and  white  under-, 
clothes,  screaming  and  chattering,  nodding  and  bobbing  and 
bowing,  and  pretending  to  be  on  good  terms  with  every  songster 
of  the  grove.  —  Irving  :  The  Sketch  Book. 

On  entering  the  amphitheater,  new  objects  of  wonder  pre- 
sented themselves.  On  a  level  spot  in  the  center  was  a  company 
of  odd-looking  personages   playing  at  ninepins.      They   were 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  299 

dressed  in  a  quaint,  outlandish  fashion ;  some  wore  short 
doublets,  others  jerkins,  with  long  knives  in  their  belts,  and 
most  of  them  had  enormous  breeches,  of  similar  style  with  that 
of  the  guide's.  Their  visages,  too,  were  peculiar :  one  had  a 
large  beard,  broad  face,  and  small,  piggish  eyes ;  the  face  of 
another  seemed  to  consist  entirely  of  nose,  and  was  surmounted 
by  a  white,  sugar-loaf  hat,  set  off  with  a  little  red  cock's  tail. 
They  all  had  beards,  of  various  shapes  and  colors.  There  was 
one  who  seemed  to  be  the  commander.  He  was  a  stout  old 
gentleman,  with  a  weather-beaten  countenance  ;  he  wore  a  laced 
doublet,  broad  belt  and  hanger,  high-crowned  hat  and  feather, 
red  stockings,  and  high-heeled  shoes,  with  roses  in  them.  The 
whole  group  reminded  Kip  of  the  figures  in  an  old  Flemish 
painting,  in  the  parlor  of  Dominie  Van  Shaick,  the  village 
parson,  and  which  had  been  brought  over  from  Holland  at  the 
time  of  the  settlement.  — Irving  :   The  Sketch  Book. 

We  find  ourselves  in  a  paved  alle}^,  some  seven  feet  wide 
where  it  is  widest,  full  of  people,  and  resonant  with  cries  of 
itinerant  salesmen,  —  a  shriek  in  their  beginning,  and  dying 
away  into  a  kind  of  brazen  ringing,  all  the  worse  for  its  confine- 
ment between  the  high  houses  of  the  passage  along  which  we 
have  to  make  our  way.  Overhead  an  inextricable  confusion  of 
rugged  shutters,  and  iron  balconies  and  chimney  flues  pushed 
out  on  brackets  to  save  room,  and  arched  windows  with  project- 
ing sills  of  Istrian  stone,  and  gleams  of  green  leaves  here  and 
there,  where  a  fig  tree  branch  escapes  over  a  lower  wall  from 
some  inner  cortile,  leading  the  eye  up  to  the  narrow  stream  of 
blue  sky  high  over  all.  On  each  side,  a  row  of  shops,  as  densely 
set  as  may  be,  occupying,  in  fact,  intervals  between  the  square 
stone  shafts,  about  eight  feet  high,  which  carry  the  first  floors : 
intervals  of  which  one  is  narrow  and  serves  as  a  door ;  the  other 
is,  in  the  more  respectable  shops,  wainscoted  to  the  height  of 
the  counter  and  glazed  above,  but  in  those  of  the  poorer  trades- 
men left  to  the  ground,  and  the  wares  laid  on  benches  and 
tables  in  the  open  air,  the  light  in  all  cases  entering  at  the  front 


300  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

only,  and  fading  away  in  a  few  feet  from  the  threshold  into  a 
gloom  which  the  eye  from  without  cannot  penetrate,  but  which 
is  generally  broken  by  a  ray  or  two  from  a  feeble  lamp  at  the 
back  of  the  shop  suspended  before  a  print  of  the  Virgin.  The 
less  pious  shopkeeper  sometimes  leaves  his  lamj)  iinlighted,  and 
is  contented  with  a  })enny  i)rint;  the  more  religious  one  has  his 
print  colored  and  set  in  a  little  shrine  with  a  gilded  or  figured 
fringe,  with  perhaps  a  faded  fiower  or  two  on  each  side,  and  his 
lamp  burning  brilliantly.  Here  at  the  fruiterer's,  Avhere  the 
dark  green  watermelons  are  heaped  upon  the  counter  like 
cannon-balls,  the  Madonna  has  a  tabernacle  of  fresh  leaves;  but 
the  pewterer  next  door  has  let  his  lamp  out,  and  there  is  noth- 
ing to  be  seen  in  his  shop  but  the  dull  gleam  of  the  studded 
patterns  on  the  copper  pans,  hanging  from  his  roof  in  the 
darkness.  Next  comes  a  *'  Vendita  Frittole  e  Liqiiori,"  where 
the  Virgin,  enthroned  in  a  very  humble  manner  beside  a  tallow 
candle  on  a  back  shelf,  presides  over  certain  ambrosial  morsels 
of  a  nature  too  ambiguous  to  be  defined  or  enumerated.  But 
a  few  steps  farther  on,  at  the  regular  wine-shop  of  the  calle, 
where  we  are  offered  "Vino  Nostrani  a  Soldi  28.32,"  the 
Madonna  is  in  great  glory,  enthroned  above  ten  or  a  dozen  red 
masks  of  three-year-old  vintage,  and  flanked  by  goodly  ranks 
of  bottles  of  Maraschino,  and  two  crimson  lamps;  and  for  the 
evening,  when  the  gondoliers  will  come  to  driidc  out,  under  her 
auspices,  the  money  they  have  gained  during  the  day,  she  will 
have  a  whole  chandelier. 

A  yard  or  two  farther,  we  pass  the  hostelry  of  the  Black 
Eagle,  and,  glancing  as  we  i)ass  through  the  square  door  of 
marble,  deeply  molded  in  the  outer  wall,  we  see  the  shadows 
of  its  pergola  of  vines,  resting  on  an  ancient  well,  with  a 
pointed  shield  carved  on  its  side;  and  so  presently  emerge  on 
the  bridge  and  Campo  San  Moise,  whence  to  the  entrance  into 
St.  Mark's  Place,   .  .   .  —  Ri-skin:   Tlic  Stones  of  Venice. 

The  man  who  now  watched  the  fire  was  of  a  different  order, 
and  troubled  himself  with  no  thoughts  save  the  very  few  that 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE  301 

were  requisite  to  his  business.  At  frequent  intervals  he  flung 
back  the  clashing  weight  of  the  iron  door,  and,  turning  his  face 
from  the  insufferable  glare,  thrust  in  huge  logs  of  oak,  or  stirred 
the  immense  brands  with  a  long  pole.  Within  the  furnace 
were  seen  the  curling  and  riotous  flames,  and  the  burning 
marble,  almost  molten  with  the  intensity  of  heat ;  while  with- 
out, the  reflection  of  the  fire  quivered  on  the  dark  intricacy  of 
the  surrounding  forest  and  showed  in  the  foreground  a  bright 
and  ruddy  little  picture  of  the  hut,  the  spring  beside  its  door, 
the  ath'letic  and  coal-begrimed  figure  of  the  lime-burner,  and  the 
half-frightened  child,  shrinking  into  the  protection  of  his  father's 
shadow.  And  when  again  the  iron  door  closed,  then  reappeared 
the  tender  light  of  the  half-full  moon,  which  vainly  strove  to 
trace  out  the  indistinct  shapes  of  the  neighboring  mountains ; 
and,  in  the  upper  sky,  there  was  a  flitting  congregation  of  clouds, 
still  faintly  tinged  with  the  rosy  sunset,  though  thus  far  down 
into  the  valley  the  sunshine  had  vanished  long  and  long  ago. 

—  Hawthorne  :   Ethan  Brand. 

Surely,  man  had  never  before  so  terribly  altered,  in  so  brief 
a  period,  as  had  Roderick  Usher !  It  was  with  difficulty  that  I 
could  bring  myself  to  admit  the  identity  of  the  wan  being 
before  me  with  the  companion  of  my  early  boyhood.  Yet  the 
character  of  his  face  had  been  at  all  times  remarkable.  A 
cadaverousness  of  complexion ;  an  eye  large,  liquid,  and  lumi- 
nous beyond  comparison;  lips  somewhat  thin  and  very  pallid, 
but  of  a  surpassingly  beautiful  curve;  a  nose  of  a  delicate 
Hebrew  model,  but  with  a  breadth  of  nostril  unusual  in  simi- 
lar formations ;  a  finely  molded  chin,  speaking,  in  its  want  of 
prominence,  of  a  want  of  moral  energy ;  hair  of  a  more  than 
weblike  softness  and  tenuity  ;  these  features,  with  an  inordi- 
nate expansion  above  the  regions  of  the  temple,  made  up  alto- 
gether a  countenance  not  easily  to  be  forgotten.  And  now  in 
the  mere  exaggeration  of  the  prevailing  character  of  these 
features,  and  of  the  expression  they  were  wont  to  convey,  lay 
so  much  of  change  that  I  doubted  to  whom  I  spoke.     The  now 


302  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

ghastly  pallor  of  the  skin,  and  the  now  miraculous  luster  of  the 
eye,  above  all  things  startled  and  even  awed  me.  The  silken 
hair,  too,  had  been  suffered  to  grow  all  unheeded,  and  as,  in  its 
wild  gossamer  texture,  it  floated  rather  than  fell  about  the  face, 
I  could  not,  even  with  effort,  connect  its  Arabesque  expression 
with  any  idea  of  simple  humanity. 

—  Toi; :    The  Fall  of  th'  House  of  Usher. 

During  the  whole  of  a  dull,  dark,  and  soundless  day  in  the 
autumn  of  the  year,  when  the  clouds  hung  oppressively, low  in 
the  heavens,  I  had  been  passing  alone,  on  horseback,  through  a 
singularly  dreary  tract  of  country,  and  at  length  found  myself, 
as  the  shades  of  evening  grew  on,  within  view  of  the  melancholy 
House  of  Usher.  I  know  not  how  it  was,  but,  with  the  first 
glimpse  of  the  building,  a  sense  of  insufferable  gloom  pervaded 
my  spirit.  I  say  insufferable ;  for  the  feeling  was  unrelieved 
by  any  of  that  half-pleasurable,  because  poetic,  sentiment,  with 
which  the  mind  usually  receives  even  the  sternest  natural 
images  of  the  desolate  or  terrible.  I  looked  upon  the  scene 
before  me  —  upon  the  mere  house,  and  the  simple  landscape 
features  of  the  domain  —  upon  the  bleak  walls  —  upon  the 
vacant,  eyelike  windows  —  upon  a  few  rank  sedges  —  and  upon 
a  few  white  trunks  of  decayed  trees  —  with  an  utter  depres- 
sion of  soul  which  I  can  compare  to  no  earthly  sensation  more 
properly  than  to  the  after-dream  of  the  reveler  upon  opium  — 
the  bitter  lapse  into  everyday  life  —  the  hideous  dropping  of 
the  veil.   ...   —  P6e  :   The  Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

It  was  now  high  day,  cloudless,  and  very  hot.  The  valley 
was  as  clear  as  in  a  picture.  About  half  a  mile  up  the  water 
was  a  camp  of  redcoats;  a  big  fire  blazed  in  their  midst,  at 
which  some  were  cooking ;  and  near  by,  on  the  top  of  a  rock 
about  as  high  as  ours,  stood  a  sentry,  with  the  sun  sparkling  on 
his  arms.  All  the  way  down  along  the  riverside  were  posted 
other  sentries ;  here  near  together,  there  widelier  scattered ; 
some  planted  like  the  first,  on  places  of  command,  some  on  the 


FORMS   OF   DISCOURSE 


303 


ground  level  and  marching  and  countermarching,  so  as  to  meet 
halfway.  Higher  up  the  glen,  where  the  ground  was  more 
open,  the  chain  of  posts  was  continued  by  horse-soldiers,  whom 
we  could  see  in  the  distance  riding  to  and  fro.  Lower  down, 
the  infantry  continued ;  but  as  the  stream  was  suddenly  swelled 


by  the  confluence  of  a  considerable  burn,  they  were  more  widely 
set,  and  only  watched  the  fords  and  stepping-stones. 

—  Stevenson  :  Kidnapped. 

II.  (a)  Read  Bryant^ s  poem  entitled  "-Green  River.'''' 
Does  the  word  picture  in  the  poem  correspond  to  the  photo- 
graph reproduced  here  ?    What  details  in  the  poem  do  youjind 


304  COMPOSITTOX    AND    RHETORIC 

i)i  the  picture?  What  adjectives  and  what  phrases  vsed  hi  the 
poem  coidd  he  applied  to  the  scene  portray ed  in  the  picture? 
What  time  of  year  and  what  time  of  day  does  the  picture 
suggest?      What  feeling  does  the  jyicture  inspire? 

(b)  Imagine  yourself  the  angler  standing  on  the  hank 
of  the  stream.  Tell  hoiv  you  approached  the  scene,  and  how 
it  impressed  you  when  you  first  came  upon  it.  Use  as  many 
u'ords  suggesting  light,  fragrance,  sound,  color,  motion,  and 
feeling  as  are  consistent  tvith  the  picture.  Let  your  descrip- 
tion emhody  the  feeling  and  spirit  which  you  find  in  '■'■  Green 
Biver.'' 

Emphasis  in  Description. —  Emphasis  in  description  de- 
pends partly  npon  arrangement  and  partly  upon  the  i)ro- 
portion  of  treatment  given  to  the  different  details.  A 
writer  may  give  due  prominence  to  the  important  details 
by  placing  them  at  the  beginning  or  at  the  end,  or  by 
giving  to  those  in  the  middle,  which  deserve  special 
emphasis,  greater  length  of  treatment  than  he  gives  to  the 
minor  details. 

The  arrangement  and  treatment  of  details  in  the  fol- 
lowing descriptions  will  illustrate  emphasis.  General  im- 
pressions or  striking  details  are  given  at  tlie  beginning  and 
at  the  end,  and  the  striking  details  in  the  middle  are  given 
greater  length  of  treatment  than  is  given  to  the  minor 
details. 

The  Frenchman  could  now  examine  the  panther;  its  muzzle 
was  smeared  with  blood.  It  was  a  female.  The  fur  on  the 
belly  and  thighs  was  a  brilliant  white.  Several  marks  that 
looked  like  velvet  formed  pretty  anklets.  The  muscular  tail 
was  also  white,  but  terminated  in  black  rings.  The  upper  part 
of  the  coat,  yellow  as  unburnished  gold,  but  sleek  and  soft,  bore 
the  characteristic  tufts  shaded  off  like  roses,  which  serve  to 
distinguish  panthers  from  other  members  of  the  feline  family. 


FORMS   OF    DISCOURSE  305 

Her  blood-stained  paws,  nervous  and  well  armed,  extended  in 
front  of  her  head,  which  rested  upon  them  and  from  which 
extended  her  thin  straight  whiskers,  like  threads  of  silver. 

—  HoNORE  DE  Balzac. 

It  was  a  small  nook  among  the  hills,  with  a  gray  precipice 
behind,  the  stern  front  of  which  was  relieved  by  the  pleasant 
foliage  of  many  creeping  plants  that  made  a  tapestry  for  the 
naked  rock  by  hanging  their  festoons  from  all  its  rugged 
angles.  At  a  small  elevation  above  the  ground,  set  in  a  rich 
framework  of  verdure,  there  appeared  a  niche  spacious  enough 
to  admit  a  figure,  with  freedom  for  such  gestures  as  spontane- 
ously accompany  earnest  thought  and  genuine  emotion.  Into 
this  natural  pulpit  Ernest  ascended  and  threw  a  look  of 
familiar  kindness  around  his  audience.  They  stood  or  sat,  or 
reclined  upon  the  grass,  as  seemed  good  to  each,  with  the  de- 
parting sunshine  falling  obliquely  over  them,  and  mingling  its 
subdued  cheerfulness  with  the  solemnity  of  a  grove  of  ancient 
trees,  beneath  and  amid  the  boughs  of  which  the  golden  rays 
were  constrained  to  pass.  In  another  direction  was  seen  tiie 
Great  Stone  Face,  with  the  same  cheer  combined  with  the  same 
soleuinity,  in  its  benignant  aspect. 

—  Hawthorne  :   The  Great  Stone  Face. 

Special  Sources  of  Interest  and  Effectiveness  in  Descrip- 
tion.—  Although  the  qualities  of  unity,  coherence,  and 
emphasis  are  essential  to  effective  description,  much  more 
depends  upon  a  skillful  selection  and  handling  of  words, 
and  upon  the  employment  of  rhetorical  devices  especially 
suited  to  description — particularly  upon  the  employment 
of  figurative  language.  The  details  of  description,  wisely 
selected  and  well  arranged,  give,  after  all,  only  the  bare 
outlines  of  a  picture.  The  use  of  suggestive  words  and 
apt  figures  is  necessary  to  fill  out'  the  outlines  into  the 
complete  picture  —  to  give  to  it  life,  color,  and  inspiration. 

Although   a   language    picture    presents   difficulties,  — ■ 


306  COMPOSITIUX    AM)    RHETORIC 

difficulties  so  great  often  as  to  need  the  aid  of  accompany- 
ing illustrations  in  the  shape  of  drawings,  photographs,  and 
prints,  —  yet  well-chosen  nouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs 
will  give  a  greater  variety  of  definite  impressions^  and  will 
arouse  keener  emotions  than  those  which  any  painted  pic- 
ture can  convey.  Heat,  cold,  changing  color  and  light, 
motion,  sound,  fragrance,  and  taste  can  merely  be  suggested 
l)y  the  pencil  or  painted  with  the  brush;'  they  can  be 
vividly  and  definitely  expressed  only  through  words. 
Note  in  the  following  descriptions,  impressions  and  effects 
which  you  would  not  get  from  a  drawing  or  a  painting. 

He  looked  about  liim  awfully.  The  candle  stood  on  the 
counter,  its  flame  solemnly  icaygiiir/  in  a  draught;  and  by  that 
inconsiderable  movement  the  Avliule  room  was  filled  with 
noiseless  bustle  and  kept  heaving  like  a  sea;  the  tall  shadows 
nodding,  the  grass  blots  of  darkness  swelling  and  dn-indling  as  if 
with  respiration,  the  faces  of  the  portraits  and  the  china  gods 
changing  and  loavering  like  images  in  water.  The  inner  door 
stood  ajar,  and  peered  into  that  leagues  of  shadows  with  a  long 
slit  of  daylight  like  a  2'ointing  Jinger.  —  Stevenson  :  JIarkheim. 

The  night  deepened  around  him,  and  the  sky  hung  out  its 
thousand  lamps.  Odors  of  the  woods  floated  on  the  air;  the 
spicy  fragrance  of  the  firs;  the  breath  of  hidden  banks  of  twin- 
flower.  Muskrats  swam  noiselessly  in  the  shadows,  diving  with 
a  great  commotion  as  the  canoe  ran  upon  them  suddenly.  A 
horned  owl  hooted  from  the  branch  of  a  dead  pine  tree ;  far 
back  in  the  forest  a  fox  barked  twice.  The  moon  crept  np  be- 
hind the  wall  of  trees  and  touched  the  stream  with  silver. 

—  Van  Dyke  :   The  Blue  Flower. 

Around  the  dwelling  of  Artaban  spread  a  fair  garden,  a 
tangle  of  flowers  and  fruit  trees,  watered  b}'  a  score  of  streams 
descending  from  the  slopes  of  I^fount  Orontes,  and  made  musi- 
cal by  innumerable  birds.     15ut  all  color  was  lost  in  the  softdmd 


FORMS  OF  DISCO ursp:  307 

odorous  darkness  of  the  late  September  night,  and  all  sounds  were 
hashed  in  the  deep  charm  of  its  silence,  save  the  plashing  of  the 
water  like  a  voice  half  sobbing  and  half  laughing  under  the 
shadows.  — Van  Dvke  :   The  Blue  Flower. 

Like  some  dripping  cavern,  the  chambers  of  the  house  were 
haunted  by  an  incessant  echoing  which  filled  the  ear  and  mingled 
with  the  ticking  of  the  clock. 

EXERCISES 

1.  Write  a  personal  description  of  some  unique  character.,  — - 
an  old-fashioned  woman,  a  queer  little  old  man,  a  hurlij  younf/ 
countripnan,  a  delicate,  spiritual  child,  or  a  homely  hut  at- 
tractive hoy. 

II.  1.  Descrihe  in  such  a  ivay  as  to  jrt^odiice  a  feeling  of 
horror,  some  hideous  creature. 

2.  Descrihe  in  such  a  way  as  to  excite  pity,  a  tiny  neivshoy. 
.    3.     Write  a  description  of  an  oriental  room  or  store. 

4.  Write  a  description  of  a  market  scene  as  viewed  from 
the  entrance  to  the  market  house. 

5.  Describe  an  old  mill  on  the  hank  of  a  stream. 

6.  Descrihe  a  scene  viewed,  from  so)ne  high  point.  De- 
scrihe one  viewed  from  the  hank  of  a  river.  Descrihe  the 
interior  of  a_  cavern  as  vietved  from  the  entrance. 

Informal  Description.  — Much  of  the  set  description  em- 
[)loyed  by  many  of  the  older  writers  in  their  stories  has 
given  way  in  recent  literature  to  informal  descriptive 
touches  which  are  intended  to  suggest  pictures,  rather 
than  to  paint  them.  These  descriptive  touches,  found  on 
every  page,  are  so  closely  interwoven  with  the  narrative 
which  they  accompany  that  the  reader  is  scarcely  con- 
scious of  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  what  he  is  reading 
is  really  descriptive. 


308  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

If  we  would  get  a  complete  picture  of  the  heroine  of 
the  modern  novel,  for  instance,  we  must  pnt  together  the 
separate  details  which  we  have  gathered  from  the  various 
chapters.  The  "lithe,  willowy  form"  and  the  "graceful 
poise  of  the  liead,"  we  get  from  chapter  I,  and  the 
"clear-cut  Grecian  nose,"  from  chapter  II;  a  little  far- 
ther on,  we  learn  tliat  the  hair  is  "of  a  reddish  gold  color, 
enriched  l)y  an  unln'oken  ripple";  in  the  last  chapter  we 
discover  that  the  "velvety  complexion"  is  of  a  "delicate 
paleness,"  and  that  the  "sad  eyes"  are  "half  gray,  half 
hazel." 

Such  description  is  effective  not  only  because  it  stimu- 
lates the  imagination  through  what  it  suggests,  but  be- 
cause it  neither  impedes  the  movement  of  the  narrative 
nor  distracts  the  attention  of  the  reader  from  the  vital 
action  of  the  story. 

EXPOSITION 

Exposition  is  that  form  of  discourse  which  has  for  its  aim 
the  unfolding  of  a  subject. 

Every  day  we  tell  somebody  how  to  do  something,  or  why 
to  do  something,  and  why  we  think  so  and  so.  Whenever 
we  try  in  this  way  to  explain,  we  use  the  form  of  composi- 
tion known  in  written  or  oral  discourse  as  exposition.  We 
use  exposition  when  we  tell  how  to  play  a  game  ;  when  we 
tell  how  the  race  was  won;  when  we  direct  some  one  to  the 
post-office;  when  we  explain  how  to  build  a  house,  to  make 
a  table,  to  put  down  a  cement  pavement,  or  to  use  the  mi- 
croscope. The  teacher  explains  a  problem  in  arithmetic; 
the  pupil  tells  how  Napoleon  was  defeated;  the  orator 
makes  clear  his  position  on  the  question  of  the  tariff;  the 
editor  advocates  the  value  of  civil  service  reform  in  mu- 
nicipal government ;   the  lawyer  explains  that  it  was  impos- 


FORMS   OF  DISCOURSE  309 

sible  for  his  client  to  commit  the  crime;  the  judge  sets  forth 
the  principles  of  the  law;  the  minister  pleads  for  unselfish- 
ness and  for  right  living  —  all  these  persons  employ  this 
common  form  of  discourse,  —  exposition.  We  find  exposi- 
tion in  books  treating  of  science,  law,  medicine,  in  the  news- 
papers, in  every  book  that  seeks  to  impart  knowledge  or 
to  explain. 

The  prevalence,  then,  of  this  form  of  discourse  implies 
that  every  writer  should  be  trained  especially  in  the  prin- 
ciples of  effective  exposition.  Since  every  person  in  his 
writing  or  talking  will  use  exposition,  he  should  seek  to 
understand  liow  this  discourse  may  be  the  most  effec- 
tively presented.  Nothing  is  more  confusing  than  to 
receive  vague  and  indefinite  explanations  from  one  who  is 
attempting  to  direct  us  to  some  destination.  Clear  and 
effective  exposition  is  of  value  to  the  writer  or  to  the 
speaker  because  it  saves  time  and  effort.  It  develops  the 
mind  along  direct  and  logical  lines.  Indeed,  the  person 
who  can  explain  with  the  greatest  directness  and  clearness 
is  far  on  the  road  to  the  mastery  of  English  speech. 

The  pupil  may  not  recognize  clearly  the  distinction  be- 
tween exposition  and  description,  and  between  exposition 
and  argnmentation.  He  should  remember  that  description 
deals  with  concrete  objects  —  that  it  presents  a  definite 
thing.  Exposition  unfolds  an  abstract  idea.  A  descrip- 
tive sketch  makes  you  see  Engine  No.  485 ;  the  expository 
theme  deals  with  the  principles  determining  the  construc- 
tion or  use  of  engines.  "  Lincoln,  the  President,"  will 
call  for  a  theme  which  will  make  us  know  Lincoln  better 
as  President  ;  "The  Office  of  President"  will  call  up  no 
such  definite  picture  but  will  explain,  as  does  Mr.  Bryce 
in  his  American  Commonwealth,  what  it  means  to  be  Presi- 
dent.     In   the   dictionary,   mountain   is   defined,  but    Mt. 


310  COMPOSITION  AXD  RHETORIC 

Wasliiiujton  is  not  defined.  The  former  is  explanation, 
which  might  be  extended  to  a  book  on  what  constitutes 
mountain,  how  they  were  formed,  where  they  are,  what 
purj)()ses  they  serve.  If,  however,  we  wish  an  image  of 
3It.   Washui(/ton,  we  shall  call  description  to  our  aid. 

The  distinction  between  exposition  and  argumentation 
is  more  easily  understood.  In  exposition  we  try  to  ex- 
plain, to  make  clear,  to  unfold ;  in  argumentation  we  try 
to  persuade,  to  convince,  to  dislodge  some  other  beliefs. 
There  must  be  two  sides  to  an  argument.  Perliaps  we 
may  make  this  distinction  clearer  by  comparing  the  func- 
tion of  the  criminal  lawyer  with  that  of  the  judge.  Tlie 
judge  explains  to  the  jury  the  principles  of  the  law ; 
strictly  speaking,  he  should  confine  himself  to  exposition. 
The  lawyer,  it  is  true,  uses  exposition ;  but  he  i)leads, 
argues,  tries  to  persuade,  to  win  the  jury  to  render  a  de- 
cision favorable  to  his  client.  The  distinction  may  still  be 
more  clearly  seen  by  a  comparison  of  the  following  sub- 
jects:  "The  Pen  is  Mightier  than  the  Sword,"  "Truth," 
"  Patriotism,"  "  Government  Ownership  of  Railroads," 
"  The  Railroads  should  be  Owned  by  the  Government," 
"  The  Present  System  of  Election  of  United  States  Sena- 
tors," "  The  United  States  Senators  should  be  Elected 
by  Popular  Vote."  It  will  be  observed,  then,  that  ex- 
position is  content  with  merely  making  clear  to  the  reader 
or  hearer  the  position  of  the  writer  or  speaker.  Argu- 
mentation goes  farther  and  seeks  to  turn  the  reader  or 
hearer  to  a  ])elief  maintained  by  the  writer  or  speaker. 

Unity  in  Exposition.  —  In  exposition,  as  in  other  forms 
of  discourse,  the  first  princij)le  is  unity.  Unity  as  applied 
to  exposition  means  that  only  those  details  are  admitted 
which  help  to  explain  the  subject.  All  digressions,  how- 
ever interesting  in  themselves,  must  be  avoided.      In  ex- 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  311 

position,  unity  is  esj)ecially  to  be  desired,  because  the 
writer,  in  seeking  to  explain  something',  may  introduce  an 
irrelevant  detail  which  will  confnse  the  reader  and  turn 
him  aside  from  the  straight  line  of  thinking. 

Coherence  in  Exposition.  —  It  is  not  sufficient  for  the 
writer  to  select  only  those  details  which  belong  to  his  sub- 
ject. He  must  arrange  details  in  such  a  manner  that  the 
reader  may  most  easily  follow  the  thought.  Nowhere  in 
writing  or  in  speaking  is  this  logical  and  coherent  ar- 
rangement more  important  than  in  exposition.  Any 
person  who  has  listened  to  a  formless  and  incoherent  ex- 
planation of  football  or  chess,  who  has  received  confusing 
directions  from  some  one  trying  to  tell  the  way  to  the  next 
town,  will  readily  understand  the  defects  of  an  incoherent 
exposition.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  greater  pleas- 
ure than  the  reading  of  a  clear,  unified,  and  coherent 
ex|)osition. 

Emphasis  in  Exposition. —  As  we  go  on  planning  our 
exposition,  we  observe  that  we  must  not  only  select  the 
proper  things  to  say  about  our  subject,  so  that  our  sub- 
ject will  stand  out  alone,  we  must  not  only  arrange  these 
particulars  in  natural  and  effective  sequence,  but  we  must 
also  arrange  them  so  that  the  beginning  and  end  of  our 
sentences,  our  paragraphs,  and  our  composition  shall  con- 
tain the  most  important  parts  of  the  statements.  Thus 
emphasis  demands  that  the  arrangement  of  all  the  parts 
be  most  effective. 

Specific  Directions. — 1.  The  first  essential  is  that  the 
writer  should  select  a  subject  which  he  himself  under- 
stands. Most  of  us  would  write  uninteresting  papers  on 
"  Opportunity,"  "  Electricity,"  "  Immortality,"  ♦'  Educa- 
tion," "Athletics,"  "  Naval  Warfare,"  "  Public  Service"; 
but  many  of   us  might  write  in  entertaining  fashion  on 


312  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

such  subjects  as,  "A  New  Play  in  Football,"  "The  Edu- 
cational Value  of  Manual  Training,"  "  Safety  Appliances 
in  the  Latest  War  Ship,"  "A  New  Dynamo,"  "  The  Good 
Citizen  as  1  Know  him."  The  tirst  class  of  subjects  must 
be  treated  by  the  specialist  or  the  writer  who  knows  his 
subject  well.  By  the  novice  such  subjects  would  receive 
the  most  superficial  and  cursory  treatment. 

2,  The  second  essential  is  that  the  writer  should  phrase 
his  subject  in  the  simplest  possible  terms.  Vague  and 
indefinite  language  does  much  to  obscure  the  meaning  of 
the  subject  at  the  outset,  and  makes  it  difficult  for  the 
reader  to  understand  the  first  steps  of  the  exposition. 

3.  After  the  subject  has  been  selected  and  phrased,  the 
next  step  is  to  form  a  plan.  In  most  cases  the  pupil 
should  write  out  the  various  steps  of  his  intended  exposi- 
tion. Even  the  most  experienced  writers  and  speakers 
write  down  the  steps  of  their  discussion  or  think  them  out 
clearly.  In  composition  there  is  no  better  ojjportunit}' 
to  develop  the  habit  of  logical  and  effective  thinking 
than  that  of  going  over  in  detail  the  processes  of  the  pro- 
spective composition.  In  drafting  this  outline,  the  pupil 
should  remember  that  every  exposition  must  have  a  be- 
ginning, a  middle,  and  an  end;  or,  in  the  terms  of  rhetoric, 
—  an  introduction,  a  development,  and  a  conclusion.  In 
expository  writing  the  introduction  should  state  and  define 
the  subject  and  should  give  the  author's  purpose.  The  de- 
velopment should  present  the  facts  and  particulars  properly 
selected  and  arranged.  The  conclusion  should  sum  up  the 
topics  of  the  exposition  either  by  naming  them  one  by  one  or 
by  giving  the  substance  of  the  development ;  should  show 
that  the  writer  has  carried  out  the  ])urpose  as  stated  in  the 
introduction  ;  and  finally,  should  make  any  application  of 
the  subject  wliicli  the  aullior  may  consider  necessary. 


FORMS  OF   DISCOURSE  313 

Examples  of  Exposition.  —  The  pupil  will  find  examples 
of  exposition  in  his  text-books,  in  the  editorial  columns  of 
the  newspapers,  in  the  books  of  essays.  He  is  referred 
especially  to  the  works  of  Ruskin,  Emerson,  John  Richard 
Green,  George  William  Curtis,  Daniel  Webster,  and  Tlie 
American  Commomvealth  by  Bryce. 

As  definite  examples  of  exposition  we  have  included  a 
few  paragraphs.  The  pupil  should  examine  these  pas- 
sages to  see  in  what  respect  they  are  clear  and  effective 
expositions  and  in  what  respects  they  fail. 

To  make  a  fire  burn  well  there  is  one  thing  even  more  neces- 
sary than  kindling  or  firewood,  and  that  is  air.  It  is  from  neg- 
lecting this  invisible  factor  that  most  novices  fail.  The  fuel 
must  not  be  tumbled  together  ;  it  must  be  built  systematically, 
so  that  air  can  draw  under  it  and  upward  through  it,  even  after 
the  tinder  and  small  kindling  have  burned  up.  The  latter 
should  never  be  used  to  support  the  larger  sticks. 

The  best  way  to  make  a  fire  quickly,  and  one  that  is  sure  to 
keep  on  burning  as  long  as  it  is  fed,  is,  first,  to  lay  two  good- 
sized  sticks  on  the  ground  as  a  foundation,  then  across  them  at 
right  angles  lay  a  course  of  dry  twigs  or  splinters,  not  quite 
touching  each  other ;  on  these,  at  one  side,  place  your  tinder, 
of  paper,  bark,  or  w^hatever  it  may  be ;  then  on  top  of  tliis  put 
two  other  cross-sticks,  smaller  than  the  bed-sticks  ;  over  this  a 
cross-layer  of  larger  twigs,  and  so  on,  building  the  pile  cob- 
house  style,  and  gradually  increasing  the  size  of  the  sticks. 
Such  a  pile  will  roar  within  half  a  minute  after  a  match  is 
touched  to  it,  and  if  the  upper  courses  are  of  split  hickory, 
or  other  good  hard  wood,  it  will  all  burn  down  to  live  coals 
together. 

In  cold  weather,  when  the  campfire  is  depended  upon  to 
keep  the  men  warm  all  night,  it  should  be  built  higher  than  the 
general  level  of  the  cam|),  first,  because  you  will  get  more  heat 
from  a  fire  built  somewhat  higher  than  your  bed,  and,  second. 


314  COMPOSTTIOX  AND  RHETORIC 

because,  unless  it  is  built  u\)ou  a  rock,  or  hard,  naked  earth,  it 
will  eat  its  way  down  in  the  forest  refuse. 

—  Kei'Uart:    The  Book  of  Cnmpinr/  and  Woodcraft. 

"  Human,"  after  all,  is  the  word  which  most  often  recurs  as 
one  tries  to  j^hrase  what  Lowell  means.  In  one  sense  the  most 
truly  human  being  is  he  who  most  strives  to  understand  tliose 
records  of  the  past  to  which  we  give  the  names  of  the  humani- 
ties. In  another  sense  the  most  deeply  human  being  is  he  who 
strives  most  to  understand  the  humanity  about  him.  It  was 
unceasing  effort  to  fuse  his  understanding  of  the  humanities 
with  his  understanding  of  humanity  which  made  Lowell  so 
often  seem  paradoxical.  He  was  in  constant  doubt  as  to  which 
of  these  influences  signified  the  more ;  and  this  doubt  so  ham- 
pered his  power  of  expression  that  the  merit  of  his  writing 
lies  mostly  in  disjointed  phrases.  At  their  best,  however, 
these  phrases  are  full  of  humanity  and  of  the  humanities 
alike.  In  distinction  from  Ticknor,  the  scholar  of  our  New 
England  Renaissance,  and  from  Longfellow,  its  academic 
poet,  Lowell  defines  himself  more  and  more  clearly  as  its 
earnest  humanist. 

—  Wendell  and  Greenough  :  A7neriran  Literature. 

The  poetry  of  Milton  differs  from  that  of  Dante  as  the  hiero- 
glyphics of  Egypt  differed  from  the  picture  writing  of  Mexico. 
The  images  which  Dante  employs  speak  for  themselves;  they 
stand  simply  for  what  they  are.  Those  of  Milton  have  a  sig- 
nification which  is  often  discernible  only  to  the  initiated. 
Their  value  depends  less  on  what  they  directly  represent  than 
on  what  they  remotely  suggest.  However  strange,  however 
grotesque,  may  be  the  appearance  which  Dante  undertakes  to 
describe,  he  never  shrinks  from  describing  it.  He  gives  us  the 
shape,  the  color,  the  sound,  the  smell,  the  taste ;  he  counts 
the  numbers ;  he  measures  the  size.  His  similes  are  the  illus- 
trations of  a  traveler.  Unlike  those  of  other  poets,  especially 
of  Milton,  they  are  introduced  in  a  plain,  businesslike  manner; 
not  for  the  sake  of  any  beauty  in  the  objects  from  which  they 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  315 

are  drawn ;  not  for  the  sake  of  any  ornament  which  they  may 
impart  to  the  poem ;  but  simply  in  order  to  make  the  meaning 
of  the  writer  as  clear  to  the  reader  as  it  is  to  himself.  The 
ruins  of  the  precipice  which  led  from  the  sixth  to  the  seventh 
circle  of  hell  were  like  those  of  the  rock  which  fell  into  the 
Adige  on  the  south  of  Trent.  The  cataract  of  Phlegethon  was 
like  that  of  Aqua  Cheta  at  the  monastery  of  St.  Benedict. 
The  place  where  the  heretics  were  confined  in  burning  tombs 
resembled  the  vast  cemetery  of  Aries. 

—  Macaulay:  Essay  on  Milton. 

These  people  are  most  excellent  mathematicians,  and  arrived 
to  a  great  perfection  in  mechanics  by  the  encouragement  of  the 
emperor,  who  is  a  renowned  patron  of  learning.  This  prince 
had  several  frameworks  fixed  on  wheels,  for  the  carriage  of 
trees  and  other  great  weights.  He  often  builds  his  largest 
men-of-war,  whereof  some  are  nine  feet  long,  in  the  woods 
where  the  timber  grows,  and  has  them  carried  on  these  trucks, 
three  or  four  hundred  yards,  to  the  sea.  Five  hundred  carpen- 
ters and  engineers  were  immediately  set  at  work  to  prepare  the 
greatest  vehicle  they  had.  It  was  a  frame  of  wood  raised  three 
inches  from  the  ground,  about  seven  feet  long,  and  four  wide, 
moving  on  twenty-two  wheels.  This  contrivance,  it  seems,  set 
out  in  four  hovirs  after  my  landing.  It  was  brought  parallel  to 
me  as  I  lay.  But  the  principal  difficulty  Avas  to  raise  and  place 
me  on  it.  Eighty  poles,  each  one  foot  high,  were  erected  for 
this  purpose,  and  very  strong  cords,  of  the  bigness  of  pack- 
thread, were  fastened  by  hooks  to  many  bandages,  which  the 
workmen  had  girt  round  my  neck,  my  hands,  my  body,  and  my 
legs.  Nine  hundred  of  the  strongest  men  were  employed  to 
draw  up  these  cords  by  many  pulleys  fastened  on  the  poles  ; 
and  thus,  in  less  than  three  hours,  I  was  raised  and  slung  on  to 
the  vehicle,  and  there  tied  fast.  All  this  I  was  told ;  for, 
while  the  whole  operation  was  performing,  I  lay  in  a  profound 
sleep,  by  the  force  of  that  medicine  in  my  liquor.  Fifteen 
hundred  of  the  emperor's  largest  horses,  each  about  four  inches 


316  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

and  a  half  high,  were  employed  to  draw  me  toward  the  metrop- 
olis, which,  as  I  said,  was  half  a  mile  distant. 

—  Swift:  GnUiver''s  Travels. 

Exposition  is  an  explanation,  a  setting  forth,  or  an  expound- 
ing. It  is  an  attempt  to  render  something  plain,  an  effort  to 
convey  to  the  reader  a  train  of  thought  which  represents  the 
conclusions  of  the  writer  uj)on  a  subject.  The  writer,  it  is  at 
once  evident,  must  be  acquainted  Avith  the  subject  with  whicli 
he  deals.  He  is  presuming  to  teach,  and  must  be  in  a  position 
which  justifies  him  in  so  doing.  He  is  prepared  to  write  an 
exposition  only  when  he  is  able,  in  regard  to  the  topic  in  hand, 
to  take  frankly  and  unreservedly  the  attitude  of  a  teacher. 

A  teacher  must  have  many  good  gifts  and  graces ;  and  who- 
ever else  may  fail  to  be  well  acquainted  with  a  given  lesson, 
he  must  have  mastered  it  thoroughly.  To  teach  he  must  first 
know.  Whoever  has  taught  understands  how  completely  dif- 
ferent is  tlie  attitude  of  the  teacher  from  that  of  the  pupil. 
While  the  pupil  is  hardly  expected  to  be  able  to  do  more  than 
reasonably  well  to  understand  the  subject  in  hand,  the  teacher 
must  be  able  to  explain,  to  justify,  to  make  clear  relations,  and 
to  impart  the  whole  matter.  The  pupil  is  excused  with  a  sort 
of  hearsay  knowledge,  but  the  teacher  must  have  a  vital  ex- 
perience of  what  he  teaches.  Especially  must  he  be  able  to 
comprehend  and  to  represent  a  subject  as  a  whole.  He  is  re- 
sponsible for  the  student's  being  able  in  turn  to  coordinate 
facts  and  theories  so  as  to  produce  unity ;  and  it  is  therefore 
essential  that  he  himself  have  power  to  hold  and  to  make  clear 
a  continuous  train  of  thought. 

—  AuLO  Bates:   Talks  on  Writing  En(jUsh. 

The  smudge  is  called  into  being  for  the  express  purpose  of 
creating  a  thick,  nauseating,  intolerable  smoke,  which  is  as 
disagreeable  to  the  mosquito,  and  black  fl}-,  and  the  midge  as  it 
is  to  the  man  whom  they  are  devouring.  But  the  man  survives 
the  smoke,  while  the  insects  succumb  to  it,  being  destroyed  or 
driven  away.    Therefore  the  smudge,  dark  and  bitter  in  itself, 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  317 

frequently  becomes,  like  adversity,  sweet  in  its  uses.  It  must 
be  regarded  as  a  form  of  fire  with  which  man  has  made  friends 
under  the  pressure  of  a  cruel  necessity. 

It  would  seem  as  if  it  ought  to  be  the  simplest  affair  in  the 
world  to  light  up  a  smudge.    And  so  it  is — if  you  are  not  trying. 

An  attempt  to  produce  almost  any  other  kind  of  fire  will 
bring  forth  smoke  abundantly.  But  when  you  deliberately 
undertake  to  create  a  smudge,  flames  break  from  the  wettest 
timber,  and  green  moss  blazes  with  a  furious  heat.  You  hastily 
gather  handf  uls  of  seemingly  incombustible  material  and  throw 
it  on  the  fire,  but  the  conflagration  increases.  Grass  and  green 
leaves  hesitate  for  an  instant  and  then  flash  up  like  tinder. 
The  more  you  put  on,  the  more  your  smudge  rebels  against  its 
proper  task  of  smudging.  It  makes  a  pleasant  warmth,  to  en 
courage  the  black  flies ;  and  bright  light  to  attract  and  cheer 
the  mosquitoes.     Your  effort  is  a  brilliant  failure. 

The  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge  is  this  :  begin  with  a 
very  little,  lowly  fire.  Let  it  be  bright  but  not  ambitious. 
Don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Then  gather  a  good  supply  of  stuff  which  seems  likely  to  sup- 
press fire  without  smothering  it.  Moss  of  a  certain  kind  will 
do,  but  not  the  soft,  feathery  moss  that  grows  so  deep  among  the 
spruce  trees.  Half-decayed  wood  is  good;  spongy,  moist,  un- 
pleasant stuff,  a  vegetable  wet  blanket.  The  bark  of  dead  ever- 
green trees,  hemlock,  spruce,  or  balsam,  is  better  still.  Gather 
a  plentiful  store  of  it.     But  don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Let  your  fire  burn  awhile  longer ;  cheer  it  up  a  little.  Get 
some  clear,  resolute,  unquenchable  coals  aglow  in  the  heart  of 
it.     Don't  try  to  make  a  smoke  yet. 

Now  pile  on  your  smoldering  fuel.  Fan  it  with  your  hat. 
Kneel  down  and  blow  it,  and  in  ten  minutes  you  will  have  a 
smoke  that  will  make  you  wish  you  had  never  been  born. 

That  is  the  proper  way  to  make  a  smudge.  But  the  easi- 
est way  is  to  ask  your  guide  to  make  it  for  you. 

—  Henry  van  Dyke:  Fisherman'' s  Luck. 


318  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

These  houses  are  very  simple,  but  entirely -adequate.  If 
you  will  lift  the  top  off  an  ordinary  meadow  lodge,  you  will 
find  a  single  room,  with  a  bed  in  the  middle,  and  at  least  one 
entrance  and  one  exit  which  are  always  closed  to  outsiders  by 
water. 

The  meadow  lodge  is  built  thus:  the  muskrat  first  chooses 
a  large  tussock  of  sedge  that  stands  well  out  of  the  water  for 
his  bedstead.  Now,  from  a  foundation  below  the  water,  thick 
walls  of  mud  and  grass  are  erected  inclosing  the  tussock;  a 
thatch  of  excessive  thickness  is  piled  on ;  the  channels  leading 
away  from  the  doors  are  dug  out  if  necessary ;  a  bunch  of 
soaking  grass  is  brought  in  and  made  into  a  bed  on  the  tussock 
— •  and  the  muskrat  takes  possession. 

—  Sharp:  A  Watcher  in  the  Woods. 

But  enter  any  wild  tract  of  wood  or  high  swamp  along  the 
creek,  and  look  sharp  as  you  cut  across  the  undergrowth.  You 
Avill  not  go  far  before  finding  a  narrow  runway  luider'your  feet. 
It  is  about  five  inches  wide,  leading  in  no  particular  direction, 
and  is  evidently  made  by  cutting  off  the  small  stems  of  vines 
and  bushes  at  an  inch  or  more  from  the  ground.  The  work 
looks  as  if  it  had  been  laid  out  by  rule  and  done  with  a  sharp 
knife,  it  is  so  regular  and  clean. 

This  is  a  rabbit  road.  Follow  it  a  few  rods  and  you  will 
find  it  crossed  by  another  road,  exactly  similar.  Take  this 
new  path  now,  and  soon  you  are  branching  off,  turning,  and 
joining  the  other  roads.  You  are  in  rabbit  land,  traveling  its 
highways  —  the  most  complicated  and  entangling  system  of 
thoroughfares  that  was  ever  constructed.  The  individual  roads 
are  straight  and  plain  enough,  but  at  a  glance  are  intended  to 
bewilder  and  lead  astray  all  who  trespass  here.  Without  a 
map  and  directions  no  one  could  hope  to  arrive  at  any  definite 
point  through  such  a  snarl. 

—  Shaki' :  A  Watcher  ill  the  Woods. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  319 

EXERCISES 

I.  Write  expositions  on  subjects  selected  from  the  following 
list.     First  set  down  a  brief  outline,  then  fill  in  and  amplify. 

1.  How  to  Build  a  Fire. 

2.  How  to  Care  for  a  Lawn. 

3.  How  to  Make  a  Table. 

4.  How  to  Make,  a  Boat. 

5.  How  to  Raise  Chickens. 

6.  What  I  Like  Best  to  Do. 

7.  The  Ideal  School  Building. 

8.  How  to  Set  up  a  Tent. 

9.  How  to  Make  Ice. 
10.  Why  1  Like  to  Skate. 

II.  The  Kind  of  Book  I  Like  to  Read.  \ 

12.  How  a  Plant  Grows. 

13.  How  a  Bird  Flies. 

14.  Making  Maple  Sugar. 

15.  Making  a  Pumpkin  Head. 

16.  Why  I  Prefer  to  Study  Mathematics. 

17.  My  Ideal  Summer  Vacation. 

18.  How  to  Prepare  for  a  Tramp  into  the  Woods. 

19.  How  to  Enjoy  One's  Self  in  Camp. 

20.  The  Causes  of  the  Battle  of  Waterloo. 

21.  The  Use  of  Steel  in  a  Modern  Tall  Building. 

22.  One  of  the  Physical  Phenomena,  —  Evaporation,  Freez- 
ing, Dew,  Winds,  Earthquakes. 

23.  Criticism  of  a  Book. 

24.  Value  of  School  Gardens. 

25.  Comparison  of  the  Oak  and  Maple  Tree. 

26.  The  Making  of  Glass,  Steel  Rails,  Pencils,  Bicycles, 
Carriages. 

27.  Explanation  of  a  Character :  Becky  Sharp,  Falstaff, 
Shylock,  Lady  Macbeth,  Richard  III,  Micawber,  Uriah  Heap, 
Sidney  Carton. 


320 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


II.  If  you  are  familiar  tvith  threshing  scenes,  you  may 
tell  hotv  ivheat  is  threshed.  Trace  the  process  from  the  time 
the  sheaves  are  loaded  upon  the  ivagon  until  the  threshed 
ivheat  is  carried  from  the  machine. 

If  you  are  not  familiar  tvith  such  scenes,  tell  what  you 
see  in  the  picture. 


The  girls  in  the  class  may,  if  they  prefer,  tell  of  the  house- 
hold work  of  threshing  day. 

III.  The  following  themes  were  zvritten  by  high  school 
pupils.  Examine  each  one  carefidly  to  see  how  well  it  conforms 
to  the  demands  for  good  exposition.  Ask  yourself  definite 
questions,  such  as  these  :  Is  it  unified?  Is  it  coherent?  Does 
it  have  emphasis  ?  Is  the  phrasing  clear?  Has  he  thought  it 
out  before  beginning  to  write  ?  Be  alert  to  see  the  good  points 
and  the  bad  points  in  the  composition  you  are  examining. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  321 

Why  I  Like  Canoeing 

Of  all  summer  sports  I  think  canoeing  is  the  most  enjoyable ; 
it  gives  needed  exercise,  secluded  companionship,  and  "  fresh 
air  "  appetites.  Many  people  think  that  in  canoeing  one  uses- 
only  the  muscles  of  the  arms,  but  to  the  contrary,  he  uses  very 
nearly  all  his  muscles,  as  he  will  find  after  his  first  day's  canoe- 
ing of  the  season.  One  gets  exercise,  out-door  exercise,  and 
still  does  not  feel  "worked  out,"  but  rather  refreshed  when 
he  comes  to  the  dock  in  the  evening  after  an  afternoon's 
boating. 

When  it  comes  to  companionable  conversation  there  is  no 
place  like  a  canoe  ;  here  one  drops  formalities  like  an  unneces- 
sary wrap,  and  proceeds  to  enjoy  himself.  Or  if  you  want  to 
discuss  some  particular  topic  with  a  special  friend,  there  is  no 
more  alluring  *'  private  ofiice  "  than  a  canoe  on  an  unfrequented 
part  of  the  river. 

Many  business  men  of  this  city  have  canoes  either  at  the 
club  at  Riverside  or  up  at  the  Ripple,  which  they  enjoy  all 
the  long,  cool,  summer  evenings  after  spending  the  day  in  a  hot 
and  turbulent  ofiice,  this  little  pleasure  "  sets  them  on  their 
feet  "  again  as  few  others  will. 

Then  there  are  the  aquatic  sports  in  connection  with  canoe- 
ing, such  as  the  '■  battle  royal,"  water  polo,  and  races,  which 
add  much  to  the  attraction  for  the  young  men.  Besides  this, 
the  lantern  parades,  and  evening  festivities,  also  hunting  and 
fishing  from  a  canoe,  have  a  certain  allurement  for  me. 

What  Sort  of  Book  I  Like  Best 

It  is  a  rare  occasion  when  I  find  a  book  that  comes  up  to  my 
ideal.  Poetry  is  to  me  almost  the  same  as  music,  and  is  differ- 
ent entirely  from  what  the  word  hook  carries  with  it  for  me. 
So  in  attempting  to  express  my  taste  for  reading,  I  shall  not 
consider  poems  among  the  possibilities.  Among  the  writings 
of  earlier  times  I  have  never  found  one  that  gave  me  real  pleas- 


322  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

are  to  read ;  not  that  I  liave  not  enjoyed  them  from  various 
other  standpoints,  but  tiiat  tlie  perusal  of  their  pages  as  a  pas- 
time has  not  satisfied  me.  Among  the  products  of  our  own  day 
I  have  found  not  more  than  two.  Tales  of  highly  improbable 
complications,  which  twentieth-century  authors  are  wont  to 
attempt  pleasing  the  public  with,  have  no  attraction  for  me, 
nor  have  stories  of  tlie  true  love  sort,  where  the  characters 
always  live  happily  ever  after.  But  give  me  the  privilege  of 
reading  a  book  where  persons  are  portrayed  enough  like  humans 
to  make  the  reader  live,  each  hour  he  reads,  with  the  ones  about 
whom  he  is  reading,  endure  the  situations  the  author  describes, 
and  actually  feel  the  magnitude  and  intensity  that  the  action  in 
real  life  would  have.  A  book  is  not  a  book  to  me  without  at 
least  one  character  portrayed  so  strong  that  he  may  be  either 
loved  or  loathed.  It  is  true  that  each  has  sorrows  in  his  every- 
day life  without  reading  about  those  of  others  and  about  the 
dark  side  of  life,  b\it  those  few  authors  whom  it  is  my  delight 
to  read  have  told  of  this  so  ideally  that  only  the  beauty  in 
sorrow  remains  when  the  book  is  closed. 

"Why  I  Dislike  Boat  Riding 

I  suppose  I  am  a  little  different  from  the  majority  of  young 
people  who  consider  a  boat  ride  at  any  time  of  day  to  be  the 
most  ideal  thing  that  any  one  could  wish.  Probably  it  is,  to 
some  of  the  people  in  a  modern  novel  and  to  a  great  many 
people  outside  of  novels,  but  to  me  it  is  an  experience  in 
which  the  only  joy  that  I  get  out  of  it  is  purely  affectation. 
I  can't  be  happy  when  I  think  how  near  I  am  to  that  dark, 
cold,  deep  water  and  what  a  little  movement  of  the  gay  crowd 
that  accompanies  me  it  would  take  to  tip  the  boat  and  give  me 
a  taste  of  what  the  w^ater  is  like.  My  fear  of  having  to  ex- 
perience this  kind  of  an  accident  I  believe  is  greater  than  any 
other. 

Daytime  in  a  boat  is  bad  enough,  but  I  know  I  shall  always 
remember  the  few  night  experiences  that  I  dared  to  let  myself 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  323 

have.  People  always  have  the  "  time  of  their  life,"  as  they  ex- 
press it,  and  they  try  to  draw  from  me  the  fact  that  I  am 
really  getting  to  like  the  water  and  that  I  am  enjoying  myself. 
Probably  I  acquiesce,  but  nevertheless  it  does  not  prevent  me 
from  nervously  watching  how  the  weight  of  one  side  of  the 
boat  seems  to  be  greater  than  that  of  the  other.  I  call  re- 
peatedly to  one  of  my  friends  to  please  stop  moving  around  so 
much  and,  for  my  sake,  to  cease  reaching  out  into  the  water 
for  a  block  of  wood.  I  fail  to  observe  the  beauty  of  the 
scenery  or  the  reflection  of  the  moonlight  on  the  water,  and 
the  whole  ride  is  but  a  source  of  worry. 

Why  I  Like  History 

History  is  my  favorite  study  and  one  that  has  always  inter- 
ested me  most.  It  delves  into  the  ancieiit  past,  bringing  into 
our  view  the  manners  and  customs,  the  thoughts  and  actions 
of  the  people  who  lived  so  many  centuries  ago.  Then,  making 
further  progress,  we  come  to  medieval  times,  seeing  all  the 
while  the  forces  at  work,  tending  toward  growth  and  enlight- 
enment. By  looking  back  we  can  see  the  workings  of  the 
Guiding  Hand,  leading  the  people  from  the  Dark  Ages  into  the 
broad,  open  light  of  what  is  termed  Modern  History.  Here 
we  study  the  mighty  Renaissance  and  Reformation,  having 
noticed  the  causes  and  the  great  need  for  such  a  movement. 

In  all  history  the  keynote  is  expansion.  Expansion  in 
territory,  in  commerce,  in  morals,  in  education,  religion  — 
everything.  And  this  expansion  has  almost  always  been  to 
the  westward.  We  see  the  height  of  this  in  Columbus's  dis- 
covery of  our  continent. 

This  tracing  of  the  expansion  movement  is  what  interests 
me  in  history. 

How  TO  Sweep 

"  I  just  love  to  sweep."  My  remark  was  greeted  with  a 
chorus  of  oil's  and  ah's. 


324  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

I  do  like  to  sweep  because  I  think  I  have  discovered  how 
to  do  this  most  dusty  task  in  a  way  that  is  enjoyable.  First 
I  have  the  pleasure  of  doing  something  different  from  school 
work ;  then  I  delight  in  climbing  on  a  ladder  to  reach  the 
cobwebs  that  will  grow  in  dark  corners.  Mother  thinks  it's 
dreadful  to  see  me  away  up  on  a  ladder,  but  I  have  the  de- 
lightful thrill  of  being  in  danger  of  falling. 

Then  I  like  to  polish  the  furniture  and  see  it  glisten  with 
the  material  results  of  my  labor.  As  to  the  real  sweeping,  I 
like  that  almost  as  well  as  a  game  of  tennis.  It's  not  so  bad 
if  one  stands  up  straight  and  swings  the  broom  as  if  she 
meant  to  annihilate  all  the  dust  at  one  fell  sweep.  For- 
tunately all  our  rooms  are  very  large  or  I  couldn't  swing  my 
broom  as  far  as  I  do.  Physical  culture  people  tell  us  that 
sweeping  if  done  properly  will  benefit  the  whole  body,  and  I 
have  found  that  to  be  true. 

After  I  have  exhausted  my  strength  and  the  supply  of  dust 
on  the  carpet,  I  assail  the  windows.  Polishing  the  glass  on  a 
cold  day  works  havoc  with  my  hands,  but  then  it  cleans  the 
soot  away  and  the  sunlight  can  shine  in. 

After  the  windows  are  polished  and  the  dust  brushed  from 
the  walls,  I  move  back  the  furniture  and  close  the  windows. 
IJy  that  time  my  mother's  patience  is  exhausted.  She  says 
she  never  did  see  any  one  make  such  a  task  of  mere  sweeping, 
but  then  I  achieve  the  result  that  every  one  else  gets  the  or- 
dinary way.  After  it  is  all  over  I  stand  back  and  view  the  re- 
sults of  my  gymnastic  stunts,  and  I  am  really  proud  of  myself. 

I  know  that  all  the  rest  of  the  family  is  glad  that  I  only 
get  one  day  in  the  week  to  practice  sweeping.  Perhaps  it  is 
better  that  I  don't  get  more.  In  one  day,  or  rather  one  morn- 
ing, I  usually  sprain  a  finger  or  an  ankle  in  my  stunts  of  mov- 
ing things  around,  get  beautiful  smudges  of  dust  on  my  face, 
and  make  my  hands  resemble  a  plowman's  ;  but  then  it's  really 
beneficial  and  enjoyable  for  me  because  I  think  I  know  how  to 
sweep. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  325 


My  Ideal  Summer  Vacation 

My  idea  of  a  thoroughly  pleasant  vacation  is  a  few  weeks 
spent  in  an  entirely  different  atmosphere.  The  other  day  I 
heard  of  the  most  ideal  way  of  spending  this  vacation  that  I 
can  imagine.  Early  in  the  summer  an  agent  procured  several 
acres  of  ground  in  the  lake  district  of  Michigan,  and  had  a 
rough  log  house  built.  One  of  the  party  that  came  up  later 
described  what  they  did  in  about  these  words  :  "  We  slept  in 
tents  and  the  one-room  house  and  ate  our  meals  under  the 
trees.  The  lakes  all  around  us  w^ere  alive  with  fish,  and  game 
was  very  plentiful.  Each  morning  we  started  out  after  break- 
fast to  fish  or  shoot,  and  after  an  early  supper  of  our  "  spoils," 
we  gathered  about  the  huge  log  fire  and  told  stories.  This  life 
was  so  new  to  us  that  every  minute  was  pleasant.  "When  the 
fishing  and  shooting  grew  monotonous,  we  formed  little  explor- 
ing parties  in  our  boat.  The  land  was  without  a  path,  as  we 
were  the  first  people  to  venture  as  far  as  forty  miles  from  the 
railroad.  When  our  two  weeks  were  over  we  turned  back  with 
much  regret  to  civilization,  where  our  big  fish  stories  are  re- 
ceived with  incredulity  and  where  we  had  to  wait  a  year  before 
returning. 

How  TO  Prepare  for  a  Tramp  into  the  Woods 

Kow  just  a  few  "  don't's  "  and  words  of  advice  from  a  person 
of  experience  before  starting  to  prepare  for  your  next  tramp 
into  the  woods.  Many  times  I  have  tried  this  form  of  pleasure 
and  each  time  it  grows  more  enjoyable,  becavise  I  am  always 
finding  new  ways  to  improve  my  manner  of  preparation,  thereby 
making  it  all  pleasure  instead  of  work. 

Whenever  you  go  on  a  trip  of  this  sort  you  always  first 
look  to  the  eatables,  for  what  is  a  tramp  without  the  good  old 
lunch  spread  out  on  the  ground,  tempting  every  one  in  the 
crowd?  Don't  let  mother  work  herself  to  death,  making  pies 
and  fine  cakes,  cooking  chickens  with  which  to  make  fancy 


326  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

salad,  but  just  get  some  nice  sweet  ham  and  cut  bread,  making 
dainty  little  sandwiches,  hard  boil  some  eggs,  take  a  large  bas- 
ket of  fruit  and  a  can  of  beans,  and  what  more  Avould  you 
want,  just  "eat,  drink,  and  be  merry." 

Then  another  thing,  don't  wear  your  very  best  clothes.  Put 
on  something  old,  so  that  when  you  come  to  a  barb-wired  fence 
you  won't  need  about  six  to  assist  you  in  getting  on  the  other 
side,  especially  when  a  cow  is  coming  at  a  very  fast  speed 
across  the  lot.  Many  lives  are  often  endangered  in  this  man- 
ner. Don't  bother  about  taking  hammocks  along  either,  for 
when  you  are  at  home  you  can  make  use  of  such  things  as  this, 
and  while  there  run  around  and  have  a  joyous  old  time. 

If  you  should  know  of  a  near-by  stream,  you  might  take  fish- 
ing poles  along,  but  I  never  bother  about  such  things  as  these. 
Just  go,  have  a  good  time,  and  forget  all  your  troubles  is  my 
advice  to  all  who  desire  to  take  a  tramp  into  the  woods. 

The  Joy  of  Wandering  in  the  AVoods 

When  we  describe  things  that  we  enjoy,  it  is  only  natural 
that  we  should  describe  those  things  under  the  most  desirable 
conditions.  So  we  shall  select  for  our  first  day  for  wandering 
in  the  woods  a  day  soon  after  the  ground  has  settled  after  the 
last  spring  thaw.  The  high  ground  is  solid  but  is  just  moist 
enough  to  give  a  springy  feeling  to  the  feet.  The  sun  is  not 
so  warm  but  that  a  coat  is  entirely  comfortable.  In  the  very 
dense  woods  there  is  still  some  of  the  air  of  winter  seclusion, 
but  it  is  impossible  not  to  feel  the  new  life  starting  up  all  about 
you.  The  air  is  full  of  joy  and  no  one  can  help  feeling  joyful. 
It  is  hard  to  keep  from  trying  to.  imitate  the  songs  of  the 
robins  and  bluebirds  who  are  trying  to  make  known  to  the 
whole  world  the  fact  that  they  will  soon  be  about  their  nesting. 
Without  thinking,  you  stop  to  note  how  like  rather  than  unlike 
the  birds  of  the  air  you  are.  They  are  having  a  gay  time  prior 
to  the  worries  of  raising  their  brood.  You  are  having  a  gay 
time  prior  to  your  summer's  work.     The  chief  difference  is  that 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  327 

their  work  is  one  that  will  take  the  larger  part  of  their  lifetime, 
while  yours  is  one  that  takes  but  a  small  per  cent  of  your  years. 
You  then  })robably  pass  on,  thinking  of  how  fortunate  you  are 
and  feeling  the  happier  rather  than  the  sadder  because  of  your 
serious  thought.  All  in  all,  you  cannot  possibly  be  downhearted 
while  wandering  in  the  woods. 

How  TO  Spexd  an  Evenixg  in  Camp 

As  soon  as  supper  is  eaten,  and  the  dishes  washed  and  put 
away,  the  company  attend  to  heaping  the  driftwood  for  a  fire. 
When  the  sun  has  faded  in  the  west  and  the  stars  begin  to 
appear,  the  great  pile  is  lighted. 

The  coinpany  arrange  themselves  about  the  fire  on  logs,  the 
father  and  mother  sitting  in  great  wicker  chairs.  Stories  of 
pioneer  life,  accompanied  by  weird  Indian  legends,  are  fore- 
runners of  thrilling  ghost  tales  which  make  delightful  shiver- 
ings  go  up  and  down  your  back. 

As  the  evening  advances,  the  fire  dies  down  and  a  dull  red 
glow  is  cast  by  it  into  the  water.  When  the  last  tale  is  told, 
you  sit  and  gaze  into  the  fire  or  stealthily  peer  around,  as 
though  you  expected  to  see  some  Indian  or  a  ghost. 

When  time  to  retire  arrives,  the  company  go  noiselessly  to 
their  tents.  You  go  to  your  cot  with  more  speed  than  anything 
else,  for  it  seems  as  though  some  Indian  chief  might  be  pres- 
ent, lurking  in  the  shadows  of  the  great  tree  trunks. 

The  cot  seems  pleasant  to  your  tired  body,  and  it  is  not  long 
before  you  are  asleep,  dreaming  of  the  pleasant  evening  and  of 
the  stories  you  have  heard. 

How  I  Made  a  Pumpkin  Head 

Girls  are  scarcely  ever  experts  in  the  art  of  carving,  and 
si;rely  I  was  no  exception,  as  one  hot  fall  day  I  sat  in  the 
kitchen  of  the  church  trying  to  change  a  meek  yellow  pump- 
kin into  something  which  looked  like  a  face.  I  had  scattered 
around  me  all  the  knives  I  could  find,  ranking  from  a  large 


328  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

butcher's  knife  down  to  a  penknife.  After  much  pounding 
with  my  fist  to  drive  the  largest  knife  into  the  puni})kin,  I 
finally  succeeded  in  getting  a  hole  cut  in  the  top  large  enough 
for  my  hand.  Then  after  some  consideration  as  to  whether  I 
wished  to  put  my  hand  into  the  mushy,  orange-colored  insides, 
I  gave  one  hard  plunge,  and  my  hand  Avas  in.  Such  a  time  as 
I  had  getting  the  pumpkin  perfectly  clean!  But  after  all  of 
my  patience  had  been  exhausted,  it  was  clean.  Then  came 
the  question  of  how  to  get  the  eyes  each  an  equal  distance  from 
the  nose.  I  decided  I  had  better  cut  the  nose  first,  so,  conse- 
quently, a  nose  was  cut,  which  greatly  resembled  a  triangle. 
Then  I  got  a  stick,  and  measured  from  the  nose  to  each  eye. 
I  tried  very  hard  to  cut  them  round,  but  only  succeeded  in 
giving  them  a  very  peculiar  oblong  shape.  Then  how  to  cut 
the  mouth,  showing  teeth,  was  the  next  question.  A  large 
curved  slit  was  first  cut  in  the  head,  after  which  I  cut  little 
zigzag  gashes  in  the  lips  to  represent  teeth.  Then  the  face 
was  all  done  but  for  a  washing,  which  it  sadly  needed.  This 
was  a  difficult  task,  as  all  will  know  who  have  tried  to  wash 
a  pumpkin ;  but  at  last,  by  means  of  soap  and  water,  it  was 
accomplished.  After  putting  in  the  candle  I  placed  it  where 
it  was  desired,  but  little  did  the  girls  and  boys  who  admired  it 
that  evening  know  what  a  time  I  had  trying  to  make  the  dig- 
nified pumpkin  look  like  a  man. 

The  Philosophy  of  Tramping 

To  enjoy  tramping  one  must,  as  in  everything  else,  do  it 
because  he  likes  it.  The  first  thing  to  do  in  preparing  for  a 
walk  through  the  woods  is  to  get  into  the  right  attitude  men- 
tally. It  is  much  more  important  that  you  know  how  to  enjoy 
the  beauties  of  nature  that  you  will  see,  and  that  you  are  able 
to  find,  than  it  is  that  you  have  on  the  right  kind  of  boots,  or 
coat,  or  hat,  or  whether  your  lunch  basket  is  full  of  good  things 
to  eat.  You  may  eat  sumptuously  many  times  during  your  life, 
but  don't  try  to  do  it  on  a  tramp.     Bread  and  bacon  is  a  meal 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  329 

for  a  king  when  flavored  with  the  aromatic  spice  of  the  free 
woods. 

Go  slowly;  you  may  rush  along  the  pavement  in  the  city 
and  not  miss  anything  in  particular,  but  in  the  country  stop  to 
look  and  listen.  Get  away  from  the  roads  and  trains,  and  see 
how  musical  are  the  softer  melodies  of  nature.  Notice  the 
beauty  of  the  color  scheme,  the  blues  and  grays  of  the  sky 
shading  into  the  blue  and  musty  browns  of  the  distance. 
Stand  on  some  prominence  and  drink  in  slowly  the  beauty  of 
nature's  mosaics  letting  the  eye  travel  from  the  uncertain  color 
of  the  distance  slowly  to  your  feet,  to  see  the  beauty  in  the 
simple  coloring  of  the  violet  or  the  corn  flower. 

Now  turn  into  the  woods  and  look.  If  your  soul  is  large 
enough,  you  may  grasp  it,  but  if  not,  go  there  again  to  learn 
more  of  the  hidden  secrets  lurking  in  leaf,  lying  sluggishly 
under  the  stone,  ov  darting  merrily  in  and  out  of  the  recesses 
of  a  virgin  pool.  Learn  to  forget  yourself  and  wait  for  the 
lessons  that  are  sure  to  come. 

How  TO  Build  a  Fire 

"Man  stokes  the  furnace  by  day  and  the  devil  puts  it  out  by 
night."  It  is  also  very  easy  to  imagine  a  sardonic  grin  on 
the  face  of  his  satanic  majesty  as  the  cold,  shivering  victim  of 
his  shrewd  torment  arises  in  the  blue  light  of  dawn  and  sallies 
forth  in  wrath  to  enkindle  some  warmth  in  the  non-sulphuric 
"regions  below"  (commonly  called  by  the  victim  "the  base- 
ment"). 

Now  ill  order  to  enkindle  this  fire,  without  sending  the 
aforesaid  "majesty"  into  paroxysms  of  joy,  the  fire  builder 
must  have  a  wonderful  control  of  himself.  Self-control  and 
kindling  go  hand  in  hand  on  these  cold  mornings. 

After  the  foundation  of  paper  has  been  laid,  and  upon  it 
piled  stacks  of  little  sticks  (as  flimsy  almost  as  the  before-men- 
tioned self-control),  then  a  little  of  the  heat-producing  coal  may 
be  introduced.    Tlie  shiverer  will  gaze,  perhaps,  with  some  fear 


330  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  added  trembling,  upon  the  dubious-looking  coal,  but  since 
"hope  springs  eternal  in  the  human  breast,"  he  with  one  or  two 
sharp  strokes  loses  his  self-control  in  lighting  a  match  and 
communicating  the  flame  to  the  paper. 

Then  he  enters  upon  a  long  period  of  anxious  watching  and 
tedious  waiting  (probably  inserted  as  a  test  for  patience),  for 
perhaps  the  kindling  will  prove  insufficient.  Like  an  over- 
zealous  conscience  he  hovers  over  the  wavering  flame,  giving  it 
a  judicious  prod  now  and  then  with  a  cold,  heartless  poker. 
Clouds  of  black,  nauseating  smoke  arise  like  the  black  shadows 
of  the  doubts  in  the  shivering  brain,  and  just  as  the  smoke 
becomes  blackest,  his  satanic  majesty  smiles  over  the  murmured 
imprecation  of  the  wretched  fire  builder. 

Then,  like  a  reproof  sent  from  heaven,  from  out  the  dense 
smoke  comes  a  little  shooting  flame,  and  with  a  sigh  of  relief 
and  thankful  heart,  the  now  pleased  victim  bangs  the  door, 
opens  the  draughts,  and  crawls  back,  shivering,  only  to  shiver 
some  more  between  the  now  also  cold  sheets. 

But  as  he  slumbers,  the  furnace  works  steadily,  and  the 
grateful  warmth,  creeping  over  the  rooms,  fills  them  with  a 
peaceful  content  that  bodes  much  good  for  the  coming  day. 

Why  I  Like  English 

English,  it  seems  to  me,  has  a  broader  scope  than  any  other 
subject  offered  in  the  high  school  or  any  school  course.  The 
subjects  for  study  are  varied;  the  mode  of  studying  them  is 
varied.  Hence,  that  study  never  becomes  monotonous.  For 
example,  in  the  course  of  study  for  the  last  semester,  we  took 
up  the  study  of  several  plays.  Each  was  studied  in  a  different 
manner.  One  was  a  textual  study ;  another,  in  which  we 
developed  and  commented  upon  passages  as  a  whole.  Then, 
too,  we  became  interested  in  the  authors,  and  therefore  read 
about  their  lives,  which  was  not  only  beneficial  from  the  educa- 
tional standpoint,  but  was  interesting  as  well.  One  of  the  most 
interesting  parts  of  the  course  was  the  outside  reading;  not 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  331 

only  the  reading  assigned  to  us  to  read  outside,  but  reading 
suggested  by  the  course.  For  instance,  before  studying  the 
plays  of  Shakespeare  in  school,  I  never  cared  to  read  Shake- 
speare out  of  school.  But  since  the  study  of  the  plays  there,  I 
have  enjoyed  reading  other  plays  outside.  Mathematics  would 
never  have  produced  such  an  effect  upon  me.  Although  I 
enjoy  mathematics  when  in  school,  I  never  would  think  of 
working  problems  by  the  hour,  for  recreation,  when  out  of 
school.  Therefore  it  seems  to  me  that  English  is  the  most 
beneficial  as  well  as  interesting  course  offered  in  the  schools. 

Why  I  Like  to  Study  Medicine 

I  cannot  recall  when  I  first  began  to  practice,  as  I  had  seen 
others  do,  the  treatment  of  any  living  creature  that  came  in 
my  way.  There  has  always  been  present  in  my  mind  the 
desire  to  learn  more  of  the  mechanism  and  workings  of  the 
human  body,  and  to  understand  why  the  different  parts  were 
necessary.  I  like  to  take  apart  the  structures  and  find  out  the 
minutest  structure  of  every  part  and  to  find  a  place  for  these 
distinct  parts.  It  seems  to  me  that  it  would  never  be  possible 
to  explain  all  parts  and  divisions  in  the  make-up  of  a  body, 
but  to  be  able  to  satisfy  your  curiosity,  to  work  for  some  rea- 
son for  the  things  that  have  never  been  explained,  seems  to  me 
to  be  the  best  work  that  can  be  found. 

Not  only  do  I  wish  to  be  able  to  tear  a  structure  to  pieces 
and  find  the  place  for  each  part,  but  I  want  to  be  able  to  put 
them  together  again,  and  to  remove  unnecessary  parts.  I  like 
to  study  and  experiment  to  see  if  every  part  is  absolutely  nec- 
essary, and  to  be  able  to  renew  life  in  the  parts  that  are  wast- 
ing away  before  a  body  is  mature.  To  find  out  why  some  part 
wears  away  before  others,  and  to  be  able,  if  possible,  to  remove 
the  cause. 

There  are  also  great  advantages  in  the  so-called  hereditary 
and  contagious,  and  also  in  the  incurable  diseases  that  science 
has  struggled  with  for  years  and  possibly  will  struggle  with 


332  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

for  hundreds  of  years  to  come,  without  securing  the  desired 
result.  The  great  men  in  this  science  are  continually  finding 
some  cure  for  a  disease  hitherto  called  incurable.  Every  day 
we  read  of  some  person  dying  suddenly  of  some  unknown 
disease  or  from  some  unnamed  cause,  but  why  could  his  death 
not  be  explained  as  so  many  thousands  are,  and  why  could 
scientists  not  prevent  his  death  ?  This  is  the  question  that  I 
wish  to  solve,  and  I  am  going  to  devote  my  time  to  this. 

ARGUMENTATION 

In  the  preceding  section  we  have  learned  that  in  expo- 
sition the  aim  of  the  writer  is  to  explain.  Whether  tlie 
design  is  to  tell  how  a  game  is  played,  how  a  scientific 
theory  works,  or  how  certain  kinds  of  labor  are  carried 
on,  the  writer  is  concerned  merely  in  explaining  the  facts. 
When  the  writer  goes  a  step  further  than  this  and  tries  to 
convince  his  hearers  that  his  own  views  should  be  the 
views  of  his  readers  or  hearers,  he  then  becomes  an  arguer 
rather  than  an  explainer,  and  his  discourse  form  is  termed 
argnmentation. 

Argumentation  we  may  accordingly  define  as  that  form 
of  discourse  which  tries  by  means  of  logic  to  convince  per- 
sons of  the  truth  or  the  falsity  of  a  given  proposition. 

It  frequently  happens,  of  course,  that  in  this  attempt  to 
convince,  other  discourse  forms  are  used,  but  they  are  used 
only  for  the  sake  of  argument.  A  description  of  a  newly 
invented  device  may  be  all  that  a  manufacturer  needs  to 
convince  him  that  he  should  install  one  in  his  plant ;  a 
short  narrative  introduced  to  illustrate  the  abuses  of  child 
labor  may  drive  the  point  home  with  such  strength  and 
pathos  as  to  win  a  legislator's  vote  ;  or  the  clear  explana- 
tion of  unsanitary  conditions  in  a  certain  community  may 
move   the   authorities  to  inunediate   action.      In   a  sinsrle 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  333 

long  argument,  like  Burke's  Speech  on.  Conciliation  with 
America^  description,  narration,  and  explanation  are  here 
and  there  used  witli  the  single  idea  of  finally  convincing 
the  House  of  Commons  that  conciliation  is  necessary.  In 
such  a  case  as  this,  paragraphs  of  description,  narration, 
and  exposition  merely  contain  ideas  which  aid  the  general 
design  of  the  master  idea. 

In  this  effort  to  convince  by  means  of  logic,  the  student 
must  make  use  of  the  same  three  great  principles  of 
composition  which  have  already  been  explained, — unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis.  The  application  of  these  three 
principles  to  the  whole  composition  has  already  been  made, 
but  we  shall  here  examine  them  briefly  as  they  exist  in 
effective  argumentation. 

Unity  in  Argument. — The  principle  of  unity  in  argu- 
mentation demands  that  every  idea  shall  be  presented  in 
the  aspect  of  proof,  and  that  it  shall  direct  itself  toward 
the  ultimate  aim  of  convincing  hearers  or  readers  of  the 
absolute  truth  or  falsity  of  a  given  statement,  view,  or 
opinion.  If  we  are  trying  to  prove  that  the  best  interests 
of  a  given  school  demand  the  abolishment  of  interscholastic 
athletic  contests,  we  should  allow  no  item  to  intrude  which 
does  not  urge  reasons  for  abandoning  such  games.  Of 
course  this  does  not  mean  that  we  may  not  take  the  oppo- 
site or  the  analogous  views  into  consideration.  We  should 
take  such  views  into  consideration,  but  we  should  bring 
them  into  the  theme  in  such  a  way  as  to  contribute  to  the 
reasonableness  of  the  propositions  which  we  are  trying  to 
maintain.  Unity  would  allow  us  to  introduce  arguments 
for  maintaining  such  contests,  but  it  would  demand  that  we 
handle  these  arguments  in  such  a  way  as  to  reveal  their 
weakness  in  contrast  to  the  strength  and  weight  of  the  op- 
posing arguments.      We  might  further  advance  the  interest 


334  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

of  our  side  by  arguing  from  analogy.  If  we  could,  for 
example,  prove  that  interscholastic  contests  in  oratory 
had  produced  bad  results,  we  might  show  that  similar 
bad  results  were  common  in  interscholastic  contests  in 
athletics.  Thus  the  introduction  of  opposite  and  analo- 
gous views  may  be  made  to  contriljute  to  the  strength 
of  the  argument  without  any  violation  to  the  principle 
of  unit}'.. 

The  essential  demand  which  unity  makes  in  argumenta- 
tion is  that  all  points,  whether  of  major  or  of  minor  impor- 
tance, shall  bear  upon  the  main  proposition.  In  Burke's 
famous  speech  we  have  the  general  proposition  that  Eng- 
land ought  to  be  fair  and  consistent  toward  the  American 
colonies.  Under  separate  heads  we  have  three  main  rea- 
sons for  the  adoption  of  such  a  policy.  First,  England's 
attitude  ought  to  be  conciliatory  ;  second,  England  ought 
to  satisfy  tlie  colonists'  complaint  that  they  are  taxed 
by  a  parliament  which  denies  them  representation;  third, 
England  ought  to  allow  the  separate  colonial  assemblies  to 
levy  their  own  taxes.  Subordinate  to  eacli  of  tliese  main 
divisions  is  a  mass  of  arguments,  but  no  detail  is  anywhere 
introduced  which  does  not,  directly  or  indirectly,  bear 
upon  tlie  general  propositions  urging  a  fair  and  peaceful 
attitude  toward  America. 

Coherence  in  Argument. — In  no  form  of  discourse  is  the 
principle  of  coherence  so  essential  as  it  is  in  argumentation. 
Here  our  appeal  is  to  logic,  and  logical  conclusion  is 
perceived  most  easily  when  the  connection  of  the  parts  is 
close.  Having  started  our  tlieme  with  an  argument  strong 
enough  to  arrest  attention  and  secure  confidence,  we  shall 
proceed  logically  to  our  conclusion.  Each  new  point  will 
be  a  link  in  tlie  chain,  and  the  welding  will  be  so  strong 
and  so  complete  as  to  be  capable  of  resisting  the  attack  of 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  335 

opponents.     We  may  illustrate  the  working  of  this  prin- 
ciple by  another  allusion  to  points  in  Burke's  speech. 

As  one  of  the  subpoints  under  the  main  idea  that  Eng- 
land should  conciliate  the  colonies,  Burke  asserts  that 
"prudent  management  is  better  than  force."  To  support 
this  he  introduces  the  four  distinct  reasons  printed  below. 
The  italicized  words  express  the  connection  and  illustrate 
the  principle  of  coherence. 

First,  Sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force  alone  is 
but  temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but  it  does  not 
remove  the  necessity  of  subduing  again ;  and  a  nation  is  not 
governed  which  is  perpetually  to  be  conquered. 

3Ii/  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is  not  always 
the  effect  of  force ;  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory.  If  you 
do  not  succeed,  you  are  without  resource ;  for,  conciliation  fail- 
ing, force  remains;  but  force  failing,  no  further  hoj-je  of  rec- 
onciliation is  left.  Power  and  authority  are  sometimes  bought 
by  kindness,  but  they  can  never  be  begged  as  alms  by  an 
impoverished  and  defeated  violence. 

A  further  objection  to  force  is,  that  you  impair  the  object  by 
your  very  endeavors  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you  fought  for 
is  not  the  thing  which  you  recover,  but  depreciated,  sunk, 
wasted,  and  consumed  in  the  contest.  Nothing  less  will  con- 
tent me  than  whole  America.  I  do  not  choose  to  consume  its 
strength  along  with  our  own,  because  in  all  parts  it  is  the 
British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do  not  choose  to  be  caught 
by  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  end  of  this  exhausting  conflict,  and 
still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may  escape,  but  I  can  make  no 
insurance  against  such  an  event.  Let  me  add  that  I  do  not 
choose  wholly  to  break  the  American  spirit,  because  it  is  the 
spirit  that  has  made  the  country. 

Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in  favor  of  force  as  an 
instrument  in  the  rule  of  our  colonies.  Their  growth  and  their 
utility  has  been  owing  to  methods  altogether  different.      Our 


336  COMPOSITION   AXD  RHETORIC 

ancient  indulgence  has  been  said  to  be  pursued  to  a  fault.  It 
may  be  so.  But  we  know,  if  feeling  is  evidence,  that  our  fault 
was  more  tolerable  than  our  attempt  to  mend  it,  and  our  sin 
far  more  salutary  than  our  penitence. 

—  BuKKE  :   Speech  on   Concilidtion. 

Emphasis  in  Argumentation. — The  principle  of  emphasis 
likewise  has  special  application  to  argumentative  writing. 
We  have  already  learned  that  in  sentences,  in  paragraphs, 
and  in  whole  compositions,  the  most  emphatic  places  are 
at  the  beginning  and  at  the  end.  In  arranging  our  topics 
in  an  outline  (or  brief)  \ve  shall  consider  this  principle  of 
emphasis.  We  shall  remember  that  our  attack  must  be 
strong  enough  to  create  immediate  confidence  in  our  read- 
ers and  listeners,  and  that  our  best  argument  must  be 
reserved  for  the  last.  Between  the  beginning  and  the 
end  the  arrangement  will  be  largely  governed  by  the 
principle  of  coherence,  but  the  amount  of  time  to  be 
allotted  to  each  separate  argument  will  be  determined  by 
the  principle  of  emphasis. 

Daniel  Webster,  in  his  speech  supporting  the  compro- 
mise of  1850,  delivered  in  the  United  States  Senate,  July 
17,  1850,  gives  many  reasons  why  the  Clay  compromise 
should  receive  popular  indorsement.  He  reserves  for  the 
closing  paragraph  his  strongest  argument  —  the  fact  that 
the  closely  linked  interests  of  the  North  and  of  the  South 
must  continue  to  depend  upon  the  maintenance  of  tlie 
Union  and  the  Constitution.  Note  in  liis  conclusion  how 
effectively  he  has  employed  this  principle  of  emphasis. 

And  now,  INIr.  President,  to  return  at  last  to  the  principal  and 
important  question  before  us:  AV'liat  are  we  to  do?  How  are 
Ave  to  briu!,'  this  emergent  and  i)ressiug  question  to  an  issue 
and  an  end?  Here  liave  we  been  seven  and  a  half  months  dis- 
])uting  about  points  which,  in  my  judgment,  are  of  no  practical 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  337 

importance  to  one  or  the  other  part  of  the  country.  Are  we  to 
dwell  forever  upon  a  single  topic,  a  single  idea?  Are  we  to 
forget  all  the  purposes  for  which  governments  are  instituted, 
and  continue  everlastingly  to  dispute  about  that  which  is  of  no 
essential  consequence  ?  I  think,  sir,  the  country  calls  upon  us 
loudly  and  imperatively  to  settle  this  question.  I  think  that 
the  whole  world  is  looking  to  see  whether  this  great  popular 
Government  can  get  through  such  a  crisis.  We  are  the  observed 
of  all  observers.  It  is  not  to  be  disputed  or  doubted  that  the 
eyes  of  all  Christendom  are  upon  us.  We  have  stood  through 
many  trials.  Can  we  stand  through  this,  which  takes  so  much 
the  character  of  a  sectional  controversy?  Can  we  stand  that? 
There  is  no  inquiring  man  in  all  Europe  who  does  not  ask 
himself  that  question  every  day,  when  he  reads  the  intelligence 
of  the  morning.  Can  this  country,  with  one  set  of  interests  at 
the  South,  and  another  set  of  interests  at  the  North,  these 
interests  supposed,  but  falsely  supposed,  to  be  at  variance'  — 
can  this  people  see,  what  is  so  evident  to  the  whole  world 
besides,  that  this  Union  is  their  main  hope  and  greatest  benefit, 
and  that  their  interests  are  entirely  compatible  ?  Can  they 
see,  and  will  they  feel,  that  their  prosperity,  their  respecta- 
bility among  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  their  happiness  at 
home,  depend  upon  the  maintenance  of  their  Union  and  their 
Constitution?  This  is  the  question.  I  agree  that  local  divi- 
sions are  apt  to  overturn  the  understandings  of  men,  and  to 
excite  a  belligerent  feeling  between  section  and  section.  It  is 
natural,  in  times  of  irritation,  for  one  part  of  the  country  to 
say,  if  you  do  that  I  will  do  this,  and  so  get  up  a  feeling  of 
hostility  and  defiance.  Then  comes  belligerent  legislation,  and 
then  an  appeal  to  arms.  The  question  is,  whether  we  have  the 
true  patriotism,  the  Americanism,  necessary  to  carry  us  through 
such  a  trial.  The  whole  world  is  looking  towards  us  with 
extreme  anxiety.  For  myself  I  propose,  sir,  to  abide  by  the 
principles  and  the  purposes  which  I  have  avowed.  I  shall 
stand  by  the  Union,  and  by  all  who  stand  by  it.      I  shall  do 


338  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

justice  to  the  whole  country,  according  to  the  best  of  my  ability, 
in  all  I  say,  and  act  for  the  good  of  the  whole  country  in  all  I 
do.  I  mean  to  stand  upon  the  Constitution,  i  need  no  other 
platform.  I  shall  know  but  one  country.  The  ends  I  aim  at 
shall  be  my  Country's,  my  God's,  and  Truth's.  I  was  born  an 
American;  I  live  an  American;  I  shall  die  an  American;  and 
I  intend  to  perform  the  duties  incumbent  upon  me  in  that 
character  to  the  end  of  my  career.  I  mean  to  do  this,  with 
absolute  disregard  of  personal  consequences.  What  are  per- 
sonal consequences  ?  What  is  the  individual  man,  with  all  the 
good  or  evil  that  may  betide  him,  in  comparison  with  the  good 
or  evil  which  may  befall  a  great  country  in  a  crisis  like  this, 
and  in  the  midst  of  great  transactions  which  concern  that 
country's  fate  ?  Let  the  consequences  be  what  they  will,  I 
am  careless.  No  man  can  suffer  too  much,  and  no  man  can 
fall  too  soon,  if  he  suffer,  or  if  he  fall,  in  defense  of  the 
libe'rties  and  Constitution  of  his  country. 

DEBATE 

The  best  opportunity  for  work  in  argumentation  in  the 
schools  is  afforded  by  practice  in  debate.  Here  the  two 
sides  —  the  affirmative  and  the  negative  —  are  arrayed 
against  each  other  for  the  purpose  of  affirming  or  denying 
the  truth  of  a  given  proposition. 

Selecting  a  Question.  —  The  essential  thought  to  be  borne 
in  mind  in  selecting  a  question  is  whether  or  not  the  propo- 
sition has  two  good  sides,  approximately  equal  and  worthy 
of  presentation.  To  try  to  debate  the  proposition  that  "A 
straight  line  is  the  shortest  distance  between  two  points  " 
would  be  folly,  for  it  is  an  axiom  and  admits  no  discussion. 
It  would  likewise  be  foolish  to  select  the  proposition  that 
"  Mars  is  an  inhabited  planet,"  for  we  have  not  sufficient 
information  to  establish  proof.  We  can,  however,  safely 
select  the  question,  "  Chinese  immigration  should  be  abso- 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  339 

lutely  prohibited  for  a  period  of  five  years,"  for  there  are 
sound  arguments  for  and  against  the  proposition.  The 
test  of  a  question  for  debate  is  then  very  simple  :  has  the 
proposition  two  approximately  even  sides  that  are  worthy 
of  presentation  ? 

Organizing  the  Debate. — The  sides  having  been  chosen 
and  the  question  selected,  the  next  step  is  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  question  in  all  its  details.  From  three  to  five 
main  points  of  our  brief  may  be  determined  upon,  and  the 
various  sub-topics  and  details  may  then  be  appropriately 
fitted  to  the  general  scheme.  Team  work  is  a  prime  es- 
sential, and  no  opportunity  to  strengthen  the  work  of  our 
colleagues  should  be  lost.  The  speeches  on  a  single  side 
should  fit  nicely  into  each  another. 

Conventions  of  Debate.  —  The  forms  of  debate  have  be- 
come conventionalized.  We  address  the  presiding  officer 
as  "  Mr.  Chairman "  ;  we  address  the  three  who  decide 
the  merits  of  the  debate  as  "honorable  judges."  We 
speak  of  the  debaters  on  our  own  side  as  our  "colleagues"; 
we  speak  of  those  on  the  opposing  side  as  our  "opponents." 
Should  we  desire  to  mention  one  speaker  particularly,  we 
should  speak  of  him  as  "  my  colleague,  the  first  speaker  of 
the  negative"  (or  affirmative);  or,  "my  opponent,  the  first 
speaker  of  the  affirmative  "  (or  negative). 

Direct  and  Indirect  Proof.  —  In  preparing  a  brief  we  con- 
sider two  kinds  of  proof  —  direct  and  indirect.  Direct 
proof  affirms  our  cause ;  it  gives  reasons  why  the  proposi- 
tion as  we  assert  it  should  prevail.  Indirect  proof  antici- 
pates the  arguments  of  our  opponents  and  sets  about  to 
destroy  such  arguments.  Direct  proof  is  like  offensive 
play  in  football ;  indirect  proof,  like  defensive  play. 

Rebuttal.  —  In  rebuttal  we  seek  to  destroy  the  argu- 
ments which  our  opponents  have  brought  forth.     Before 


340  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

such  rebuttal  can  be  el'lVctive,  it  is  necessary  that  we  in- 
vestigate the  arguments  on  the  op[)osing  side  as  carefully 
as  we  investigate  the  arguments  on  our  own  side.  Having 
seen  the  strong  points  of  our  opponents,  we  should  seek  an 
effective  means  to  refute  tliem. 

Speeches  should  not  be  Committed.  —  The  best  debaters 
do  not  rely  upon  committed  speeches.  All  the  points 
should  of  course  be  thoroughly  mastered  and  effectively 
grouped,  but  the  speaker  should  not  be  a  slave  to  the 
formally  memorized  argument.  The  committed  speech 
prevents  spontaneity  and  effective  rebuttal  in  the  prog- 
ress of  the  debate. 

The  Brief.  —  In  order  to  show  in  a  more  specific  way 
how  a  brief  may  be  prepared,  we  print  below  an  outline  of 
the  question :  "  Resolved,  That  interclass  contests  should 
displace  interscholastic  contests." 

BRIEF   FOR   DEBATE 

Resolved,  That  interclass  contests  should  displace  inter- 
scholastic contests. 

Affirmative 
Introd,uction 
I.    The  problem  of  school  contests  is  one  of  the  vital  ques- 
tions confronting  our  school  officials  to-day. 

A.  It  is  admitted  that  contests  of  some  sort  are  indis- 

pensable to  a  healthy  school. 

B.  Two  great  systems  of  contests  —  interscholastic  and 

interclass  —  are  being  advocated. 
II.    These  two  systems  may  be  described  as  follows : 

A.    Interscholastic    contests  involve    the  competition   of 

two  or  more  teams  from  different  schools. 
B.  In  interclass  contests  the  competitors  are   all    from 
the  same  school. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  341 

III.  The    question  is,  Shall  the   iiiterscholastic    system   now 

prevalent  be  replaced  by  the  interclass  system? 

IV.  The  affirmative  iiitends  to  prove  its  case  by  establishing 

two  facts : 

A.  Iiiterscholastic  contests  are  bad. 

B.  Interclass    contests    eliminate    the    most    promiuenl 

evils  of  the  present  system. 

Discussion 

I.    The  present  system  of  interscholastic  contests  is  bad,  be- 
cause, 

A.  Sound  pedagogy  condemns  it. 

1.  The  value  of  contests  as  at  present  conducted  is 

disproportionate  to  the  cost  in  time  of  players, 
and  of  teachers  who  supervise  and  manage. 

2.  Too  much  tension  is  developed  among  students  in 

general  before  a  contest,  resnltiug  in  inefficient 
school  work. 

B.  It  promotes  "  professionalism  "  as  opposed  to  a  wide- 

spread student  training. 

1.  Only  a  few  boys  can  participate  in  these  contests. 

2.  Those  boys  who  do  participate  are  the  ones  who 

least  need  the  training. 

C.  It  endangers  physical  well-being. 

1.  The  strain  of   the  contests  is   too  severe  on  the 

contestants. 

2.  There    is     danger,    particularly    in    football,    of 

serious  injury  to  the  contestants  through  the 
efforts  of  a  rival  team  to  cripple  a  strong 
opponent. 

D.  It  is  not  in  keeping  with  the  best  ethics. 

1.  The  home  team  competes  with  the  other   teams 

over  whose  ethical  status  it  has  no  control. 

2.  Contests,  as   now  conducted,  tend  to   create  bad 

feeling  between  schools. 


342  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

3.  It  creates  the  false  tendency  of  ranking  a  school 

according    to   the   number   of   contests    it    has 
won. 

4.  Gambling  is  invited. 

5.  A   coach   is   tempted   to   introduce    questionable 

practices  in  his   efforts   to   produce  a   winning 
team. 

6.  The  hero  worship   accorded  to  a  prominent  con- 

testant tends  to  give  him    an  altogether   false 
notion  of  his  own  importance. 

II.    Interclass  contests  eliminate  most  of  these  evils,  because, 

A.  The  heavy  strain  is    taken    off    both    teachers    and 

pupils. 

1.  The  extensive  management  and  intensive  coaching 

is  dispensed  with. 

2.  The  overstrain  of  the  contestants  is  absent. 

3.  The  school  is  not  being  wrought  up  constantly  to 

a  feverish  excitement. 

4.  The  probabilities  of  physical  harm  are  materially 

reduced. 

B.  The  appeal  of  interclass  contests  is  to  the  majority, 

not  to  the  few. 

1.  Experience  has  shown  that  in  interschool  contests 

active  participation  is  increased  50  to  100  per 
cent. 

2.  These  contests  appeal  to  a  class  of  students  that 

need  the  training. 

C.  The  (ithical  standard  of  the  school  is  raised. 

1.  Ill  feeling  between  schools  is  eradicated. 

2.  The  standard  of  efficiency  of  the  school  is  made 

to  depend  on  the  general  output. 

3.  Gambling  ceases. 

4.  Undue  hero  worship  is  done  away  with. 

5.  "Sport  for   sport's  sake"  is  the  motto  of   inter- 

class contests. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  343 

Conclusion 

I.    The  affirmative  has  demonstrated  the  following  facts : 
A.    The  present  system  is  bad,  because, 

1.  It  transgresses  the  laws  of  sane  pedagogy, 

2.  It  promotes  a  "  caste  system  "  instead  of  general 

training. 

3.  It  is  dangerous  physically, 

4.  It  is  objectionable  from  a  moral  standpoint, 

jB.    The  proposed  system  eradicates  every  one  of  these 
evils. 
II,   Therefore,  interclass   contests    ought   to   displace    inter- 
scholastic  contests. 

Negative 
Introduction 

I.   The  negative  denies  that  it  is  the  fault  of  the  interscho- 

lastic  system  that  evils  are  connected  with  it, 
II.    They  deny  that  interclass  contests  are  a  successful  sub- 
stitute for  the  present  system. 
Ill,    They  question  the  success  of  the  interclass  system,  since 

it  is  practically  untried, 
IV.    They  say  that  in  too  many  schools  it  is  impracticable. 
V.    They  insist  that  the  present  system  incorporates  all  the 
possible  benefits  of  the  proposed  one. 

Discussion 

I,    The   interscholastic    system   is   not   responsible   for   the 
few  evils  now  attendant  ujjon  it,  because, 
A.    It  is  the  abuse,  not  the  use,  of  the  system  that  has 
led  to  excesses. 
1.    The  waste  of  an  undue  amount  of  the  teachers' 
time  in  management  is  absurd  unless  the  number 
of  contests  is  unduly  multiplied. 


344  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 

2.  The  dangerous  tension  of  the  student  body  drops 

to  the  commonplace  level  as  soon  as  the  con- 
tests become  a  fixed  part  of  the  school  routine. 

3.  Gambling   and   questionable  play  are   evils   that 

cannot  be  eliminated  from  antj  system. 

4.  Bitter  school  rivalries  indicate  a  lack  of  faculty 

supervision,  and  are  not  a  necessary  result  oi 
the  system. 

II.    Interclass  contests  are  not  a  successful  substitute  for  in- 
terscholastic  contests,  because, 

A.  The   former   system  is  not  so   advantageous   to   the 

school  as  an  institution. 

1.  Interclass  contests  are  not  as  good  advertisements 

for  a  school  as  interscholastic  contests  are. 

2.  They  do  not  arouse  the  widespread  community 

interest  that  our  prevalent  contests  do. 

3.  They  tend  to  introduce  factional  strifes  within  the 

school  instead  of  the  unity  caused  by  opposing 
a  common  rival. 

B.  Interclass   contests   are  not   as  advantageous  to   the 

contestants. 

1.  Since  the  contestant's  field  is  so  limited  and  un- 

varied, he  loses  the  alertness  that  he  must  con- 
stantly display  in  interscholastic  contests. 

2.  Individual  interest  in  interclass  contests  lags  too 

quickly. 

C.  The  interclass  system,  at  best,  is  only  experimental. 

1.    Interclass  contests  have  the  approval  of  time. 

D.  In  nine  tenths  of  our  schools  the  interclass  system 

is  impracticable  because  of  the  small   number  of 
students. 

E.  All  the  possible  benefits  of  the  interclass  system  are 

already  incorporated  in  the  existing  system. 
1.    The  present  "try-outs"  can  be  made  to  fill  pre- 
cisely tlie  demands  of  the  interclass  advocates. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  345 

Conclusion 

I.    The  negative  has  proved  the  following  points : 

A.  The  criticism  of  the  present  system  is  directed  toward 

its  abuse,  not  its  use. 

B.  Interclass   contests    cannot  take  the  place    of   inter- 

schoLastic  contests,  because, 

1.  They  do  not  center  enough  healthy  public  atten- 

tion upon  the  school. 

2.  They  are  not  a  sufficient  stimulant  to  individual 

effort. 
G.    They  are  an  untried  experiment. 

D.  They  are  i]iipracticable  in  all  our  smaller  institutions. 

E.  The  experiment  is  useless,  since  all  the  possibilities  of 

the  proposed  system  are  already  incorporated  in 
the  present  system. 
II.    Therefore,    interscholastic   contests    should   not   be    dis- 
placed by  interclass  contests. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Select  from  the  list  of  questions  heloiv  one  suitable 
for  class  debate.  Have  each  member  of  the  class  2^^^p<^t'<i 
a  brief  on  the  side  he  chooses  to  discuss. 

II.  A  class  studying  '•'•  3farmion''  will  find  it  inter  e  sting  to 
have  Lord  3Iarmions  best  and  iror-st  sides  presented.  Those 
'who present  his  toorst  side  mag  call  themselves  the  prosecution; 
those  ivho  present  his  best  side  may  call  themselves  the  defense. 

III.  The  character  of  Coriolanus  and  that  of  Lady  Mac- 
beth may  be  similarly  treated. 

SUGGESTED   QUESTIONS   FOR   DEBATE 

1.  The  high  school  authorities  should  provide  for  freer 
election  of  studies. 

2.  Our  school  should  establish  a  weekly  paper. 


346  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

3.  jMore  men   teachers  sliould   be    employed  in  our  high 
schools. 

4.  A   college  should  be  located  in  a  small  town — not  in  a 
large  city. 

5.  Coeducation    is    desirable  for  pupils   in  the   secondary 
schools. 

6.  Physical  culture  should  be  made  compulsory  in  schools. 

7.  Lady  Macbeth  deserves  severer  condemnation  than  does 
Macbeth. 

8.  The  United  States  should  intervene  in  behalf   of   the 
Russian  Jews. 

9.  The  country  boy  has  advantages  superior  to  the  city  boy. 

10.  The  purchase  of  the  Philippines  was  a  political  mistake. 

11.  Trade  schools  should  be  maintained  at  public  expense. 

12.  The   capitalization    of   departmental    stores    should   be 
limited  by  law. 

13.  Postal    savings    banks    should   be   established   by    the 
United  States  government. 

14.  The  virtues  of  Coriolanus  outweigh  his  vices. 

15.  Public  libraries  are  justified  in  freel}^  spending  their 
funds  for  late  popular  fiction. 

IG.    The  spelling-reform  movement  should  be  encouraged. 

17.  Laws  governing  the  qualifications  of  voters  sliould  be 
made  uniform. 

18.  The  honor  system  should  prevail  in  all  school  examina- 
tions. 

19.  Municipalities  sliould  own  and  operate  their  street-rail- 
way systems. 

20.  The  "School  City"  should  be  adopted  in  our  school. 

21.  The  school  initial  should  be  granted  for  success  in  ora- 
tory or  debate. 

22.  Life   imprisonment    should   be    substituted   for  capital 
punishment. 

23.  The  United  States  government  should  own  and  operate  a 
telegraph  system  in  connection  with  the  post-office  dei)artment. 


FORMS  OF  DISCOURSE  347 

24.  The  United  States  should  subsidize  her  merchant 
marine. 

25.  A  literacy  test  should  be  applied  to  all  foreign  immi- 
grants. 

26.  The  term  of  the  President  of  the  United  States  should 
be  lengthened  to  six  years,  and  he  should  be  ineligible  to  re- 
election, 

27.  United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote. 

28.  Libraries  and  art  galleries  should  be  open  on  Sundays. 

29.  The  United  States  should  establish  a  Central  Bank. 

30.  A  boy  given  his  choice  between  two  years  of  European 
travel  and  four  years  in  college  would  wisely  choose  the 
former. 


CHAPTEE  YIII 

ORAL  COMPOSITION 

In  the  preceding  chapters  continual  stress  has  been  laid 
upon  the  necessity  of  keeping  our  speech  pure  and  of 
making  it  effective.  Repeated  warnings  have  been  offered 
against  the  incorrect,  the  provincial,  and  the  pompous.  In 
the  discussion  of  the  whole  composition,  the  paragraph, 
and  the  sentence,  there  has  been  a  constant  demand  for 
unity,  coherence,  and  empliasis.  In  this  chapter  we  shall 
not  study  new  principles  ;  we  shall  simply  discuss  ways 
ajid  means  of  applying  these  principles  systematically  to 
oral  composition  work.  We  shall  remember,  of  course, 
that  principles  which  govern  effective  written  discourse 
likewise  govern  effective  oral  discourse. 

Care  in  the  use  of  spoken  English  is,  however,  of  more 
importance  even  than  care  in  the  use  of  written  English. 
Tliis  is  true  simply  because  spoken  English  is  more  fre- 
quently employed.  Most  of  us  speak  thirty  or  forty  sen- 
tences for  every  one  we  write,  and  this  frequency  of 
utterance  largely  establishes  our  habits  in  the  use  of  Eng- 
lish. If  we  are  careful  in  our  speech  and  establish  for 
ourselves  a  high  standard  of  excellence,  the  correct  habits 
we  form  will  aid  us  when  we  come  to  write  ;  if  we  are 
careless,  the  slovenly  habit  will  sorely  hamper  us  when  we 
come  to  write.  To  assist  us  in  forming  a  high  standard 
of  spoken  English,  we  may  examine  more  carefully  the 
full  significance  of  this  phrase — oral  composition. 

348 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  349 

Oral  composition,  as  we  are  using  tlie  term,  is  not  ap- 
plied to  the  short,  fragmentary  sentences  that  we  bandy 
about  thoughtlessly  in  talking  with  our  friends  and  kin- 
dred;  it  is  applied  to  longer,  more  connected  speech, — ■ 
incidents,  reproductions  of  stories,  character-sketches, 
explanations,  debates,  topics  in  history,  geography,  and 
science,  — any  oral  account,  in  short,  that  is  large  enough 
in  scope  to  demand  attention  to  its  structure  or  form. 

Let  us  assume  that  the  first  work  in  oral  composi- 
tion is  to  be  confined  to  the  narration  of  little  incidents  or 
events  in  wliich  the  pupil  lias  been  intimately  concerned, 
and  let  us  examine  in  detail  a  plan  by  which  the  brief 
story  may  be  made  clear  and  interesting  to  listeners. 
Every  pupil,  doubtless,  has  had  many  experiences  which 
the  class  would  enjoy  hearing  about.  A  ride  in  the  coun- 
try, a  tramp  througli  the  woods,  a  visit  to  a  cave,  an  acci- 
dent at  tlie  park,  a  fall  from  a  hay  wagon — any  of  these 
experiences,  or  any  similar  to  these,  may  be  related  with 
good  effect  by  making  use  of  the  plan  and  observing  the 
directions  which  follow. 

First  of  all,  it  is  necessary  to  have  well  in  mind  the  inci- 
dent and  the  point  which  it  is  intended  to  make.  From 
the  number  of  details  which  at  first  suggest  themselves, 
the  pupil  must  determine  which  ones  should  be  rejected 
and  which  ones  should  be  included.  He  must  determine, 
too,  just  where  the  incident  properly  begins.  In  telling 
of  a  fall  from  a  hay  wagon,  for  instance,  it  would  not  do 
to  go  back  to  the  beginning  of  the  ride,  tell  all  that  hap- 
pens during  the  ride,  and  then,  at  last,  tell  of  the  accident 
itself.  It  would  be  much  better  to  begin  with  the  imme- 
diate circumstances  which  led  to  the  accident. 

Although  the  introduction  must  be  brief,  as  has  just 
been  suggested,  it  must  make  the  situation  clear  by  telling 


350  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  time  and  place  and  by  giving  the  principal  characters. 
In  other  words,  the  incident  needs  a  little  setting.  In  re- 
lating the  incident  itself,  tlie  events  should  be  told  in  the 
order  in  which  they  occurred ;  in  this  way  the  work  will 
be  more  unified  and  coherent.  For  the  same  reason  it 
would  be  well  in  the  beginning  to  tell  the  incidents  in  the 
first  person,  as  the  biographical  form  enables  the  speaker 
more  easily  to  maintain  the  point  of  view. 

In  order  to  make  the  story  interesting,  it  is  necessary  to 
lead  rapidly  from  one  incident  to  another,  up  to  the  climax. 
The  speaker  should  choose  words  expressing  form,  feeling, 
motion,  color,  odor,  and  sound;  and  omit  all  unnecessary 
detail,  and  all  description  wdiicli  would  impede  the  move- 
ment of  the  story.  In  the  development  of  the  incident, 
he  should  constantly  remember  to  keep  minor  matters  sub- 
ordinate to  the  main  })oint.  In  telling,  for  instance,  how 
a  brave  fireman  rescued  a  little  child  from  a  burning  build- 
ing, the  interest  should  center  around  the  heroic  rescue  it- 
self and  not  around  the  incidents  leading  up  to  or  associ- 
ated with  the  rescue.  The  excitement  and  horror  which 
the  people  felt,  the  explanation  of  how  the  child  happened 
to  be  in  the  burning  building,  the  frantic  efforts  of  the 
mother  to  get  into  the  burning  building  —  all  these  details 
should  be  kept  subordinate  to  the  main  point  of  the  stoiy, 
— the  brave  action  of  the  fireman. 

In  addition  to  these  general  directions,  the  following 
detailed  ol)servations  and  warnings  may  be  helpful  in 
securing  accuracy,  correctness,  and  effectiveness.  The 
outline,  too,  following  the  directions,  may  aid  in  the  plan- 
ning of  the  incident. 
General  Observations  and  Warnings. 

1.  The  incident  must  have  unity  and  coherence  in  all 
its  parts. 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  351 

2.  Events  should  be  told  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur. 

3.  The  same  point  of  view  must  be  kept.  For  a  few 
weeks  you  may  use  the  first  person  throughout.  Later, 
change  to  third  person. 

4.  The  vocabulary  must  not  outrun  the  ideas. 

5.  Strive  to  make  your  pictures  vivid. 

Grammatical  Observations  and  Warnings. 

1.  Verbs  must  agree  with  subjects  in  person  and  number. 

2.  Pronouns  must  agree  with  antecedents  in  gender, 
person,  and  number. 

3.  Like  must  not  be  used  for  as  to  compare  actions. 

4.  Which  must  not  stand  for  a  clause. 

5.  Phrases  and  clauses  should  be  placed  as  near  as  pos- 
sible to  the  words  modified. 

Sentences. 

1.  Each  sentence  must  say  a  single  thing. 

2.  The  relationship  of  the  words  must  be  unmistakable. 
Subordinate  ideas  should  be  expressed  in  subordinate  forms. 

3.  Important  ideas  must  be  placed  in  important  places. 
The  important  places  are  the  beginning  and  the  end. 

Words. 

1.  Choose  simple  words. 

2.  Be  free  to  use  words  that  suggest  motion,  feeling, 
color,  odor,  sound. 

3.  Beware  of  slang  and  provincialisms. 

4.  Don't  be  satisfied  to-day  with  the  stock  of  words  you 
had  on  hand  yesterday. 

Outline  for  an  Incident 

I.    Composition  as  a  whole. 
A.    Made  up  of  three  parts, 


352  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

1.  Introduction  or  setting.     (Should  be  very  brief.) 

(a)  Time. 

(b)  Place. 

(c)  Introduction  to  main  characters  —  possibly  a 

brief  description  of  their  dress  and  pecul- 
iarities. 

(d)  Circumstances  leading  to  or  accounting   for 

the  incident. 

2.  P)Ody — story  itself. 

3.  Conclusion  —  appropriate    ending.      (Should    be 

very  brief.) 

Just  how  the  plan  suggested  in  this  chapter  worked  out 
in  actual  practice  may  be  seen  in  what  follows. 

Pupils  who  had  prepared  their  oral  compositions  in 
accordance  witli  the  foregoing  suggestions  and  directions 
related  the  following  incidents  at  the  next  recitation. 
Before  reading  the  com[)0.sitions  and  noting  the  criticisms 
offered  by  their  classmates,  let  us  observe  the  manner  in 
which  the  incidents  were  related  and  the  nature  of  the 
comments  made. 

The  pu})il  who  recited  stood  in  front  of  the  class.  All 
the  other  members  of  the  class  listened  attentively  to  what 
he  had  to  say,  and  prepared  to  make  comments — favorable 
or  adverse.  When  the  pupil  had  finished  his  incident,  he 
remained  standing  while  those  who  had  risen  to  make 
comments  were  addressing  him.  The  criticisms  offered 
were  given  in  a  spirit  of  friendly  candor.  If  the  pupil 
had  done  well,  his  classmates  directed  attention  to  the 
points  of  excellence  ;  if  he  had  done  poorly,  they  were 
equally  frank  and  alert  —  polite,  too,  of  course  —  in  direct- 
ing attention  to  specific  faults  and  in  suggesting  ways  in 
which  the  composition  might  be  improved.  These  criti- 
cisms  were  not  confined   to  comments  on   the  structural 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  353 

features  of  the  composition;  the  pupil's  position  and  hear- 
ing before  the  class,  the  intonation  of  his  voice,  his  pro- 
nunciation, enunciation,  and  all  those  little  mannerisms 
that  mar  or  improve  oral  composition,  were  freely  dis- 
cussed. If  the  pupil  felt  that  he  had  been  unjustly 
criticised  on  any  point,  he  defended  his  position  in  a  polite, 
friendly  manner.  But  just  how  all  this  worked  out  in 
recitation  may  be  seen  in  the  following  pages. 

A  Brave  Mouse 

One  morning,  several  days  ago,  my  father  donned  his  loung- 
ing jacket  and  slippers  and  sat  down  by  the  fireplace  to  read 
the  morning  paper.  He  was  half  asleep ;  but  in  spite  of  his 
drowsiness  he  tried  the  paper,  as  he  was  anxious  to  learn  the 
news.  All  at  once  he  felt  something  touch  his  hand,  which 
was  lying  on  his  knee.  He  looked  to  see  what  it  was.  There 
sat  a  brave,  innocent  little  mouse,  looking  at  him  with  its 
beady  black  eyes.  It  had  been  so  still  and  quiet  that  the 
mouse  had  not  felt  any  fear,  so  it  had  boldly  climbed  up  my 
father's  leg.  My  father,  being  curious  to  know  just  how 
long  it  would  be  before  it  took  the  alarm,  kept  very  quiet  for  a 
minute  or  two.  Then  suddenly  he  moved  his  hand,  ever  so 
slightly,  but  the  mouse  at  once  became  alarmed,  and  with 
great  agility  and  speed  scampered  away  to  a  place  of  refuge. 

CrUids7ns 

1.  I  liked  the  way  the  general  plan  worked  out.  "We  have 
a  brief  introduction  that  gives  the  situation ;  this  is  followed 
by  the  different  actions  of  the  man  and  the  mouse  ;  and  finally 
we  are  told  that  the  mouse  scampers  away  to  a  safe  place. 

2.  I  think  we  were  interested  in  Amy's  composition  because 
she  succeeded  in  making  us  see  the  situation  clearly.  Her 
father  in  his  lounging  robe   sleepily  reading   the   paper,  the 

2a 


354  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

silent  little  mouse  rumiing  up  tlie  father's  leg,  then  pausing, 
growing  alarmed,  and  finally  scampering  away  —  all  these 
details  were  ])rought  in  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  us  see  every- 
thing vividly.  We  could  almost  hear  the  tiny  heart  of  the 
mouse  throbbing,  and  Ave  were  curious  to  know  what  would 
happen  to  the  poor  little  creature. 

3.  I  noticed  that  everything  was  told  from  the  point  of  view 
of  the  father.  Your  relating  the  things  just  as  the  father  saw 
them  happen  made  the  story  coherent. 

4.  I  think  there  was  good  connection  between  the  ideas. 
For  example,  I  thought  the  phrase  "in  spite  of"  connected 
the  idea  of  his  drowsiness  with  his  effort  to  read  the 
paper. 

5.  I  like  the  choice  of  words,  —  "  beady  black  eyes,"  "  moved 
his  hand  ever  so  slightly,"  "  scampered  away."  They  give  us 
definite  impressions. 

6.  I  did  not  like  the  expression  "tried  the  paper."  I 
think  it  too  vague.  Besides,  the  word  '•})aper"  had  just  been 
used,  and  the  repetition  could  have  been  avoided  by  substitut- 
ing the  phrase  "  commenced  to  read." 

7.  The  last  phrase, "  place  of  refuge,"  seems  to  me  too  vague. 
Wouldn't  it  be  better  to  say  exactly  where  it  went  —  through 
a  hole  in  the  baseboard,  for  instance  ? 

8.  I  liked  the  word  "agility."  I  don't  think  I  ever  used 
the  word  myself,  but  it  seems  to  me  an  especially  good  word 
to  describe  the  movements  of  a  mouse. 

9.  Don't  you  think  the  beginning  of  the  composition  Avould 
be  slightly  improved  by  commencing  wath  the  word  "  early  "  ? 
That  would  account  for  the  father's  drowsiness. 

10.  I  do  not  think  the  antecedent  of  "  it "  in  the  sentence 
commencing  "  It  had  been  so  still "  is  quite  clear ;  I  thought 
at  first  "it"  referred  to  "mouse,"  but  it  seems  to  refer  to 
"hand."  The  next  "it"  refers  to  "mouse,"  and  I  think  each 
"  it  "  should  have  the  same  antecedent.  It  would  be  better  to 
say  "  father's  hand  "  instead  of  "  it." 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  -355 


Our  Horseback  Ride  to  the  Blackberry  Patch 

It  was  while  I  was  visiting  my  friend  at  her  conntry  home 
that  the  little  incident  which  I  am  going  to  relate  took  place. 

My  friend,  who  was  very  mischief-loving,  suggested  one 
day  that  we  go  blackberry  hunting  down  on  an  old,  unoccu- 
pied farm  by  the  creek.  To  this  I  readily  agreed,  and  after 
bridling  Prince,  —  their  old  family  horse,  —  we  arrayed  our- 
selves in  just  such  grotesque  costumes  as  would  be  suitable 
for  such  an  adventure.  We  then  hunted  up  two  old  baskets  — 
somewhat  the  worse  for  their  long  period  of  service  —  and  with 
happy,  delighted  hearts  we  mounted  Prince  and  started  off. 

He  being  lame,  our  progress  was  slow  and  discouraging ; 
but  after  one  full  hour's  travel  and  fun,  we  reached  the  glorious 
patch  and  at  once  dismounted.  To  our  dismay,  as  we  started 
through  the  gate.  Prince  refused  to  budge.  We  coaxed  and 
pulled  and  tugged,  but  all  in  vain.  He  seemed  determined  to 
stand  stock  still  forever.  Pinally,  however,  greatly  to  our  sur- 
prise, he  broke  from  us,  turned  abruptly  around,  and  at  break- 
neck speed  darted  down  the  road. 

Feeling  indignant  at  his  shameful  treatment  of  us,  and  not 
caring  much  what  became  of  him,  we  picked  a  few  berries  and 
then  sat  down  in  a  shady  spot  by  the  creek  to  eat  a  lunch 
which  we  had  brought  with  us.  We  then  started  for  home, 
and  after  trudging  lazily  along,  we  at  last  reached  the  barn- 
yard gate.  There,  with  a  cheerful  neigh,  our  deserter  came 
up  to  us  as  if  he  wished  to  make  amends.  It  is  needless  to 
say  that  we  forgave  him  on  the  spot,  and  then  and  there  made 
an  engagement  with  him  for  a  similar  trip  on  the  morrow. 

Criticisms 

1.  As  I  listened  to  the  composition  I  did  not  get  many 
definite  impressions,  and  the  effect  of  the  whole  was  rather 
hazy.  The  incident  could  be  toned  up,  I  think,  by  introducing 
more  words  which  appeal  to  our  sense  of  color.     I  think,  for 


356  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

instance,  that  the  color  of  tlio  horse  shouhl  be  given,  and  other 
little  touches  could  be  added  that  would  give  us  a  clear  picture 
of  the  horse. 

2.  It  seemed  to  me  that  the  beginning  was  stilted.  That 
the  incident  happened  while  Elizabeth  was  visiting  in  the 
country  could  be  told  us  incidentally.  By  placing  it  in  the 
beginning  and  giving  it  an  entire  sentence,  you  place  undue 
emphasis  upon  that  fact.  Could  it  not  be  combined  with  the 
second  sentence  and  be  worded  something  like  this:  "One 
morning  last  summer,  while  I  was  visiting  in  the  country,  my 
friend  proposed  a  blackberry  hunt  down  on  the  old  unoccupied 
farm  on  the  creek  "  ? 

3.  I  think  it  would  be  better  to  leave  out  ''mischief-loving," 
for  that  word  suggests  to  me  that  a  trick  was  to  be  played  on 
some  one. 

4.  I  liked  the  word  "  grotesque,"  for  it  helped  me  to  form  a 
picture  of  their  costumes.  However,  I  did  not  see  the  appro- 
priateness of  "glorious"  in  "glorious  patch";  Inxariant  ex- 
presses a  more  definite  idea. 

5.  It  does  not  seem  to  me  that  the  indignation  against  the 
horse  is  very  strongly  felt ;  the  fact  does  not  come  out  clearly, 
because  the  other  ideas  nu'iitioned  in  the  same  sentence  were 
too  remote  from  the  feeling  of  iudignation.  The  sentence 
lacked  unity. 

6.  Some  of  the  verbs  I  thought  were  well  chosen, — 
"budge,"  "coaxed,"  "pulled,"  "tugged,"  "darted,"  "trudg- 
ing." 

7.  I  was  a  little  bit  doubtful  about  the  expression,  "  It  is 
needless  to  say  that  we  forgave  him  on  the  spot."  Why  not 
say  simply,  "  We  forgave  him  on  the  spot"  ?  Or  would  it  be 
better  to  insert  the  word  "  perhaps  "  ?  If  it  is  wholly  needless 
to  say  a  thing,  then  why  say  it  ? 

8.  Some  of  the  words  I  did  not  hear  distinctly ;  the  words 
"bridling,"  "adventure,"  and  "suitable"  were  not  clearly 
enunciated. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  357 


A  Bicycle  Eide 

One  beautiful  August  morning  I  was  aroused  by  the  shout- 
ing of  a  group  of  three  boys  below  my  window.  I  hurriedly 
donned  my  attire  and  soon  appeared  at  the  front  door,  where 
they  informed  me  of  their  intended  bicycle  ride  to  a  small 
town  about  ten  miles  distant. 

We  started  at  nine  o'clock,  with  much  jesting  and  jollity.' 
No  ride  was  ever  more  thoroughly  enjoyed  till  we  reached  a 
large  hill,  situated  midway  between  the  two  villages.  At  its 
base  glides  the  stately  White  River,  wide  and  deep.  Dis- 
mounting, we  toiled  laboriously  upward  for  at  least  a  mile. 
Fatigued  and  panting  from  our  exertion,  we  refreshed  our- 
selves with  a  cooling  draught  of  clear,  sparkling  spring  water, 
rested  for  a  few  moments,  sprang  upon  our  wheels  and  re- 
sumed our  merry  adventure. 

Just  as  the  fire  department  whistle  was  emitting  its  noonday 
series  of  screeches,  we  reached  our  destination,  the  little  town 
for  which  we  had  started.  We  rested  our  wheels  against  the 
side  of  an  insignificant  structure,  upon  the  sign  of  which  had 
long  since  been  painted  "  Bakery."  The  pastry  stock  was 
much  more  inviting  than  its  shelter.  We  purchased  a  sub- 
stantial meal  which  was  dispatched  with  greatest  alacrity. 
After  having  completed  our  hearty  repast,  it  was  suggested 
that  we  visit  all  points  of  interest.  We  did  so,  and  it  then 
being  dark  we  returned. 

Criticisms 

1.  Although  your  narrative  has  no  special  point  to  it,  —  no 
exciting  climax  which  we  await  in  suspense,  —  the  incidents 
were  pretty  well  related.  In  the  first  place,  you  made  your 
composition  coherent  by  telling  the  incidents  in  the  order  in 
which  they  occurred.  In  your  introduction,  too,  you  clearly 
gave  the  situation  by  telling  when  you  took  the  trip,  who  your 
companions  were,  and  where  you  were  going. 


358  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

2.  You  made  the  rather  commonplace  incidents  of  your 
trip  interesting  by  passing  rapidly  from  one  to  the  other.  By 
omitting  all  unnecessary  detail  or  description,  you  secured  rapid 
movement,  and  thus  made  your  story  spirited. 

3.  Helen  says  that  you  omitted  all  unnecessary  detail  and 
description ;  I  do  not  agree  with  her.  You  did  not  need  to  tell, 
for  instance,  that  you  were  "  aroused  by  the  shouting  of  boys," 
or  that  you  "hastily  donned  your  attire."  These  are  details 
which  are  necessary  neither  to  lead  up  to  the  story  of  the  ride 
nor  to  tell  anything  about  the  ride.  Again,  your  descriptive 
sentence,  "At  its  base  glides  the  stately  White  River,  wide  and 
deep,"  seems  to  me  to  have  no  place  in  your  story.  It  breaks 
into  the  narrative  like  an  intruder,  checks  the  movement,  and 
spoils  our  interest. 

4.  The  interest  in  your  narrative  seemed  to  me  to  lie  in 
your  use  of  well-chosen  expressions,  which  enabled  us  to  enter 
into  the  spirit  of  the  trip.  Such  expressions  as  "jollity  and 
jesting,"  "thoroughly  enjoyed,"  "laboriously  toiled,"  "panting 
and  fatigued,"  "  refreshed  ourselves  with  a  cooling  draught  of 
water  from  a  clear,  sparkling  stream,"  "resumed  our  merry 
adventure,"  "dispatched  our  meal  with  great  alacrity,"  and  so 
on,  suggested  vividly  to  me  the  difficulties  and  the  delights  of 
the  trip.  Your  story  really  aroused  my  enthusiasm  to  take  the 
same  kind  of  trip  on  my  wheel. 

5.  I  liked  your  conclusion  because  it  was  brief  and  sug- 
gestive. 

6.  You  say  "the  fire  department  whistle  was  emitting  its 
noonday  screeches."  Don't  you  think  it  would  be  better  to  say 
^'uttering  its  noonday  screeches"?  The  expression  "insignifi- 
cant structure,"  too,  was  not  well  chosen.  The  notion  that  we 
get  from  it  is  too  vague  and  general.  Our  picture  would  have 
beep  more  specific  and  vivid  if  you  had  said,  "a  little  dilapi- 
dated old  store-room." 

7.  I  noted  an  error  in  grammar.  Your  phrase,  "After 
having  completed  our  dinner  "  is  incorrect,  because  after  as  a 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  359 

preposition  cannot  be  followed  by  the  past  participle.  In  other 
words,  the  past  participle  cannot  be  used  as  a  noun  in  any  con- 
struction. 

8.  The  use  of  the  absolute  participial  phrase,  "It  then 
being  dark,"  made  your  last  sentence  very  awkward.  It  would 
be  better  to  use  the  clause,  "As  it  was  then  growing  dark." 

9.  I  liked  the  easy,  informal  manner  in  which  you  told 
your  story.  You  looked  us  "straight  in  the  eye,"  and  told 
your  story  without  any  hesitation. 

10.  You  did  not  pronounce  the  word  suggested  correctly. 
You  sounded  only  one  "g"  in  the  word.  It  should  be  pro- 
nounced sag-gested. 

EXERCISE 

Read  carefully  the  following  composition  and  ansiver  the 
questions  asked  concerning  it. 

A  Little  Philosopher 

A  five-year-old  boy  and  his  mother  entered  a  crowded  car. 
The  little  boy  was  very  happy,  for  in  his  hand  he  held  a  string 
which  bore  aloft  a  beautiful  toy  balloon.  A  gentleman  arose 
and  gave  them  a  seat,  and  as  the  boy  sat  beside  his  mother,  the 
balloon,  in  all  its  crimson  glory,  floated  gayly  above  his  head. 
The  bright,  sweet  face  of  the  child,  brightening  as  he  watched 
his  treasure  with  shining  eyes,  attracted  much  attention  and 
many  smiles  from  the  other  passengers.  He  returned  the 
smiles  shyly  in  the  few  brief  intervals  when  he  could  take  his 
eyes  from  the  object  of  his  adoration.  Suddenly  "  Pop  !  "  and 
the  beautiful  toy  was  no  more.  From  where  it  had  been,  there 
fell  into  the  boy's  lap  a  dark,  shrivelled,  ugly  thing  like  a  piece 
of  burnt  paper.  There  was  a  murmur  of  sympathy  from  the 
passengers,  a  tender,  loving  "That's  too  bad,  darling,"  from  his 
mother ;  and  every  one  unconsciously  braced  himself  to  endure 
the  howls  of  grief  which  seemed  inevitable.     The  boy  held 


360  coMrosiTiON  and  rhetoric 

in  liis  chubby  hand  the  remnant  of  liis  past  delight;  and  for 
one  brief  moment  he  looked  at  it  with  a  face  as  full  of  gloom 
as  it  had  been  full  of  joy.  Then  suddenly,  with  pouting  lips 
and  one  deep  sigh,  he  threw  the  wreck  upon  the  floor,  and 
calmly,  resignedly,  without  a  tear,  turned  to  look  out  of  the 
window. 

1.  Is  it  right  to  say  that  "the  boy  held  a  string  which 
bore  aloft  a  beautiful  balloon"?  Is  the  fault  an  inaccu- 
racy in  statement,  or  are  too  many  words  used? 

2.  Is  anything  gained  by  saying,  "A  gentleman  arose 
and  gave  them  a  seat"?  Does  it  give  an  important  realistic 
touch,  or  is  it  an  irrelevancy  that  ought  to  be  discarded? 
Is  it  in  harmony  with  any  detail  already  given?  Was  the 
related  detail  of  any  particular  importance? 

3.  Do  you  like  the  expression,  "  the  balloon,  in  all  its 
crimson  glory,  floated  gayly  above  his  head"?  Why? 
Does  it  make  the  scene  more  vivid?  Does  it  lend  vari- 
ety? Would  you  discard  it  or  alter  it?  Is  it  not  hack- 
neyed ? 

4.  Are  we  surprised  when  the  balloon  pops?  Should 
we  be  prepared  for  this  by  some  hint,  or  is  it  more  artistic 
to  let  it  be  expressed  suddenly? 

5.  Do  you  like  the  expression,  "from  where  it  had 
been"?     Can  you  improve  it? 

6.  Comment  on  the  adjectives  employed  throughout. 
Are  there  too  many  of  them?  Try  making  substitutions 
and  note  the  effect. 

7.  Is  there  sullficient  climax  at  the  end,  or  do  you  ex- 
pect something  different?  If  this  is  a  true  incident  and 
nothing  else  really  happened,  was  it  worth  telling?  If  it 
was  worth  telling,  is  the  interest  enhanced  by  the  choice 
of  words  and  the  evident  sympathy  of  the  narrator? 

8.  Is  the  interest  mainly  in   the  incident   or  in  the 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  361 

character  of  the  little  boy?  At  what  point  is  the  interest 
strongest?  What  characteristics  of  the  mother  are  sug- 
gested ? 

9.    Does  the  ending  of  the  story  justify  the  title?     If 
it  does  not,  show  liow  details  might  be  added  that  would. 
But  do  not  jump  hastily  to  the  opinion  that  it  does  not. 
10.    Does  the   vocabulary  throughout  seem  adequate? 


EXERCISES 

I.  Select  one  of  the  follow iuf/  iiicideitts.      Come  to  tlie  reci- 
tation next  day  prepared  to  tell  it  before  the  class. 

1.  The  Letter  That  Upset  Our  Plans. 

2.  When  Our  GasoHne  Stove  Exploded. 

3.  When  Old  Towser  Died. 

4.  The  Outlandish  Scream  at  Midnight. 

5.  My  First  Donkey  Eide. 

6.  When  My  White  Rabbit  Was  Killed. 

7.  My  Little  Brother  Breaks  his  Arm. 

8.  How  Cousin  Jack  Came  Near  Drowning. 

9.  My  First  Act  of  Wilful  Disobedience. 

10.  How  I  Was  Victimized. 

11.  The  Dollar  I  Lost. 

12.  When  Uncle  Jack  Took  INIe  for  a  Eide  in  His  Automobile. 

13.  A  Mistake  on  My  Eeport  Card. 

14.  A  Puncture  in  My  Tire. 

15.  How  I  Sold  My  Paper  Eoute. 

16.  Coasting  Down  Shooter's  Hill. 

17.  The  Story  the  Old  Fireman  Told. 

18.  The  Eescue  of  the  Engineer. 

19.  Out  at  Old  Aunt  Mary's. 

20.  The  Promise  That  Was  Not  Kept 

21.  The  Faculty  Plays  Baseball. 


362  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

22.  Skating  on  Thin  Ice. 

23.  Making  a  IJuat. 

24.  Out  in  a  Canoe. 

25.  When  I  Upset  the  Ink. 

2G.  AVhen  Mj  Pony  J>ecame  Frightened. 

27.  Joe,  the  Fireman's  Dog. 

28.  How  I  Got  the  Cattle  Out  of  the  Corn. 

29.  My  First  Experiment  in  the  Kitchen. 

30.  Making  Fudge. 

31.  When  James  Forgot  His  Speech. 

32.  How  I  Got  Caught  by  My  Ovnx  Joke. 

33.  April  Fool. 

34.  My  First  Lesson  in  Algebra. 

35.  How  I  W^as  Worsted  in  a  Trade. 

36.  Building  a  Doll  House. 

37.  Our  Dramatic  Experiment  in  Mr.  Arnold's  Barn. 

38.  At  Market. 

39.  On  a  Load  of  Hay. 

40.  In  the  Hay  Mow. 

41.  Down  at  the  Sulphur  Springs. 

42.  My  First  Bide  in  a  Stage  Coach. 

43.  At  the  Circus. 

44.  How  I  Spend  My  Saturdays. 

45.  Watching  Our  Neighbors'  Children. 

46.  When  the  Electric  Light  Went  Out. 

47.  All  Alone  in  the  House. 

48.  A  Dollar  Misspent. 

49.  Fighting  Bumble-bees. 

50.  A  Halloween  Prank. 

Note  to  the  Teacher,  — After  the  pupils  have  had  considerable  prac- 
tice in  the  reproduction  of  incidents,  their  inventive  faculties  may  be 
aroused  by  some  such  exercise  as  the  following. 

II.  Take  the  folloiving  as  suggestive  situations  and  elabo- 
rate them  into  incidents: 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  363 

1.  A  boy.  A  clog.  Dusk.  A  stump  that  looks  like  a  crouch- 
ing man. 

2.  A  little  girl  in  a  lonely  garret  steps  on  a  match  that  lies 
near  a  pile  of  shavings. 

3.  A  banker  visiting  in  the  country  fails  to  get  an  important 
message.  He  picks  up  a  paper  the  nex.t  morning  and  reads 
about  the  anxiety  of  his  depositors  and  a  probable  run  on  the 
bank. 

4.  Traveling  in  a  Pullman  coach,  a  stranger,  mistaking  you 
for  another  person,  addresses  you  very  familiarly.  You  later 
become  fast  friends. 

5.  Discouraged  in  your  attempt  to  solve  a  problem  in  alge- 
bra, you  chance  to  remember  a  quotation  from  your  common- 
place book. 

III.  The  following  incident  is  told  hy  a  bachelor  uncle. 
Retell  it  from  the  hoy's  standpoint,  and  imagine  the  hoy  to  he 
fifteen  or  sixteen  years  old. 

Last  Thursday,  about  nine  o'clock,  I  received  a  telephone 
message  from  the  Caldwells  to  come  out  on  the  next  inter- 
nrban  car  and  eat  dinner  with  them  at  their  home  in  the  coun- 
try. I  hardly  knew  whether  to  accept  or  not,  for  Harold,  my 
little  four-year-old  nephew,  had  been  left  in  my  chai'ge  while 
his  mother  and  nurse  were  away,  and  I  did  not  know  how  to 
dispose  of  him.  When  I  explained  this  to  Mrs.  Caldwell,  she 
quickly  answered,  "  Why,  bring  him  along  ;  we  just  love  chil- 
dren, and  he  can  have  a  fine  time  out  here."  But  Harold  did 
not  want  to  go;  he  was  busy  with  his  trains  and  was  just  then 
intent  on  getting  his  red  flat  car  through  a  tunnel  he  had  built 
out  of  my  morocco-bound  set  of  Warner's  Library  of  the  World's 
Best  Literature.  Finally,  however,  I  cajoled  him  into  going  by 
telling  him  Avhat  a  fine  car  lide  we  should  have  and  by  appeal- 
ing to  his  love  of  fried  chicken,  which  we  were  sure  to  have. 

After  more  or  less  delay,  I  finally  got  the  urchin  dressed,  and 
we  arrived  just  in  time  for  a  one  o'clock  dinner.     The  silence 


364  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

that  followed  the  blessing  was  suddenly  and  irreverently  broken 
by  my  nejihevv.  Looking  sadly  at  the  roast  beef,  he  loudly  and 
lanientingly  sighed,  "No  chick!  no  chick!" 

IV.  The  foUoicing  incidents  were  told  hy  young  pupils. 
An  examination  of  each  theme  will  reveal  certain  faults  and 
certain  merits.  /Study  each  theme  to  discover  these  faults  and 
merits. 

A  Tktp  to  Mount  Lowe 

While  we  were  in  California  this  last  summer,  we  took  atrip 
to  Mount  Lowe,  which  was  not  very  far  from  wdiere  we  lived. 

In  order  to  reach  it,  we  had  to  go  on  the  electric  cars  until 
we  came  to  the  hotel,  which  was  about  three  miles  from  the 
top  of  the  mountain.  Froin  there  we  had  to  ride  either  on 
mules  or  on  horses.  We  took  mules  and  started  on  our  way, 
feeling  that  the  novelty  of  the  ride  would  be  somewhat  of  a 
lark. 

The  path  was  very  narrow,  and  the  turns,  Avliich  made  the 
way  dangerous,  were  sharp.  Notwithstanding  those  difliculties, 
we  reached  the  summit  in  safety,  and,  after  enjoying  the  won- 
derful scenery  about  us  and  partaking  of  a  splendid  luncheon 
of  crackers,  we  started  to  make  the  descent. 

When  we  were  about  halfway  down,  the  mule  which  my 
father  was  riding  began  to  run  down  the  mountain,  and  the 
one  that  I  was  on,  not  wanting  to  be  left  behind,  also  started 
to  run. 

Before  I  had  time  to  realize  what  was  happening,  I  Avas 
jolted  off.  There  happened  to  be  a  tree  on  the  edge  of  the 
path,  and  catching  hold  of  that  I  saved  myself  from  falling 
any  farther. 

My  father,  after  a  time,  succeeded  in  stojjping  his  mule  and 
he  immediately  came  back  to  see  what  had  become  of  the  rest 
of  us.  After  this  we  went  on  our  way  and  reached  the  hotel 
without  further  mishap. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  365 


Uncle  Eastus's  Misfortune 

It  was  late  in  December  and  the  snow  was  falling  fast.  We 
were  a  few  of  the  many  Christmas  shoppers  who  hurried  to 
and  fro,  carrying  numerous  bundles.  We  were  pressing 
onward  through  this  great  throng,  Avhen,  all  at  once,  we  heard 
an  awful  crash.  Upon  looking  around,  we  beheld  a  very 
pathetic  scene.  An  old  colored  uncle  stood  looking  sadly  at 
a  heap  of  red  glass,  which  had  formerly  been  twelve  red  globes 
for  danger-lanterns.  The  selfish,  cowardly  woman  who  had 
caused  all  of  the  trouble  and  commotion  paused  a  moment, 
grinning  fiendishly,  then  hurried  away  through  the  crowd. 
After  a  few  sympathetic  remarks  and  some  coins  and  bundles 
had  been  given  to  Rastus,  the  people  went  their  separate  ways 
and  we,  too,  resumed  our  walk  homeward. 

The  Story  of  the  Intruders 

All  was  quiet  on  the  farm.  Every  one  seemed  settled  for 
the  night.  Suddenly  I  was  awakened  by  my  cousin,  with 
whom  I  was  sleeping,  and  a  light  was  pointed  out  to  me  in  the 
adjoining  room.  At  the  same  time  she  said,  "  It's  some  one 
with  a  match  ;  call  Aunt  Jane  !  "  No  sooner  said  than  done. 
Our  loud  cries  for  "  Help ! "  soon  brought  the  much-desired 
assistance.  We  all  three  at  once  began  a  search.  The  down- 
stairs rooms  were  thoroughly  gone  through,  but  alas  !  all  in 
vain  —  the  intruder  could  not  be  found.  We  were  almost 
ready  to  give  up  the  search  when  a  harmless  little  firefly  was 
seen  flying  about  the  room.  It  dawned  upon  us  at  once  that 
this  little  intruder  had  been  the  innocent  cause  of  all  our 
alarm.  In  spite  of  our  discovery  we  could  not  quite  recover 
from  our  fear,  until  the  welcome  day  began  to  dawn. 

A  Pathetic  Incident 

It  was  on  Decoration  Day,  while  our  school  was  on  its  way 
to  the   Soldiers'  and    Sailors'  Monument    with   our   memorial 


366  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

offerings,  that  our  attention  was  attracted  by  a  very  pathetic 
picture. 

Opposite  the  new  Federal  lUiihling  stood  an  elderly  lady, 
bent  with  age,  and  with  an  expression  of  extreme  sadness  in 
her  face.  As  we  passed,  her  face  lighted  np  and  she  waved 
her  black-bordered  handkerchief.  The  boys  immediately  re- 
moved their  caps  and  stopped  talking,  and  all  with  one  accord 
answered  her  salute  by  waving  the  flowers  and  smiling 
})atriotically  at  her  enthusiasm.  This  pleased  her  very  much, 
and  we  fancied  that  we  saw  tears  come  into  her  eyes  as  we 
continued  to  do  her  this  homage.  Our  class  were  in  a  more 
reverent  mood  than  they  would  have  been  had  they  not  seen 
this  sweet,  sad-faced,  patriotic  woman  of  the  war. 

A  Surprise 

While  the  farm  hands  were  sitting  in  the  shade  of  a  lai'ge 
oak  tree  waiting  to  be  called  to  dinner,  one  of  tlieni  related  the 
following  incident :  While  I  was  feeding  a  flock  of  sheep  the 
other  day,  one  of  the  large  bucks  came  bounding  up  behind  and 
knocked  me  over  the  feed-troTigh.  The  buck  was  very  much 
surprised  at  seeing  me  go  through  the  air  in  that  fashion  and 
evidently  relished  the  prank,  for  he  thought  that  he  would 
try  it  again.  Accordingly,  he  proceeded  to  put  his  thoughts 
into  action,  but  meanwhile  I  had  regained  my  feet  and  upon 
looking  around  to  see  if  any  one  had  been  enjo^'ing  my  surprise 
glanced  at  the  buck  and  to  my  horror  and  surprise  saw  that  he 
was  gathering  himself  for  another  binit.  This  made  me  fly  for 
the  shelter  of  the  fence,  Avhere  I  escaped  his  wrath. 

Ax   EXCITIXG    IXCIDEXT 

My  friend  and  I  were  sitting  quietly  on  the  porch  Avhen 
there  came  to  our  ears  a  sound  as  of  crashing  timber  and  the 
creaking  and  groaning  of  v/heels.  Instantly  leaving  our  seats, 
we   rushed   excitedly    down   the    sidewalk   to   see    what    had 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  367 

happened.  Just  as  we  readied  the  front  gate,  we  saw  a 
heavily  loaded  moving  van,  which  had  been  struck  by  a  street 
car,  fall  with  a  resounding  crash  to  its  side.  Immediately 
following  this,  we  heard  ear-piercing  shrieks  and  cries  from 
two  men  who  had  been  pinned  under  the  wagon.  The  frightened 
motorman,  who  was  on  the  car  which  struck  the  wagon,  was 
running  frantically  from  one  side  of  the  van  to  the  other, 
trying  to  lift  them  from  their  perilous  positions.  By  this  time 
the  street  was  crowded  with  people.  Several  men  from  the 
crowd  came  to  the  motorman's  assistance  and  all  together  suc- 
ceeded in  rescuing  the  two  from  under  the  vehicle.  The  bell 
on  the  quickly  approaching  ambulance  was  heard,  and  the  two 
men  who  were  seriously  injured  were  gently  lifted  in  and 
taken  away.  After  the  moving  van  had  been  taken  to  the 
other  side  of  the  street,  the  cars  again  started  on  their  way, 
and  the  street  was  cleared  except  for  a  few  people  who  stood 
awhile  discussing  the  accident  and   surveying  the  wreckage. 

A  Timely  Rescue 

One  day  this  last  summer  two  small  children  were  playing 
on  the  seashore.  I>y  them,  stretched  lazily  on  the  warm  sand, 
lay  their  faithful  dog,  Duke.  It  would  have  been  apparent 
to  any  interested  observer  that  he  was  enjoying  a  pleasant 
dream  and  that  he  was  not  aware  of  anything  going  on  about 
him. 

Suddenly  the  little  girl  stopped  to  repair  the  side  of  a  sand 
cave  which  the  last  large  wave  had  destroyed.  She  instantly 
lost  her  footing,  and  another  huge  wave  coming  up  at  that 
moment  caused  her  to  be  swept  under  the  water. 

Her  small  brother  stood  helplessly  by,  but  the  dog  now 
fully  alive  to  the  danger  his  little  mistress  was  in,  made 
known  to  him  by  the  screams  of  the  little  brother,  sprang  up. 
In  an  instant  he  was  in  the  water  and  he  soon  had  his  teeth 
firmly  fastened  in  her  garments.  He  was  bravely  struggling 
with  his  burden  when  a  gentleman  passing  at  that  time  saw 


368  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

them.      He   took    in    the  situation    at   a  glance  and    (|ui('kly 
relieved  the  dog. 

The  little  girl's  parents  were  notified  and  the  story  told  to 
them.  It  is  perhaps  needless  to  say  that  the  dog  was  rewarded 
quite  as  much  as  the  man. 

The  Fikst  Day  ix  a  Countky  School 

The  first  day  in  a  country  school  was  always  very  oppressive, 
for  the  spirit  of  newness  was  everywhere,  —  new  faces,  new 
books,  new  seats,  and,  the  greatest  of  all,  the  new  teacher. 

The  children  were  there  in  plenty  of  time ;  for  they  sat 
clustered  about  the  schoolhouse  steps  in  order  to  catch  the  first 
glimpse  of  the  teacher.  The  boys  were  dressed  in  loose 
trousers  and  waists  which  had  been  ironed  to  such  a  stiffness 
that  they  resembled  metal.  Their  large  palm-leaf  hats  served 
for  umbrellas,  both  in  sunshine  and  in  rain.  The  girls  were 
clothed  in  white  dresses,  which  had  the  same  metallic  stiffness. 
In  their  hands  they  carried  bouquets  of  wild  flowers  which 
they  intended  to  arrange  in  bottles  and  tumblers  and  then  set 
on  the  teacher's  desk.  News  of  the  teacher's  approach  soon 
spread  over  the  excited  groups  of  children.  Suddenly  a  tall, 
slender  woman,  to  whose  hands  a  half  dozen  girls  were  cling- 
ing, was  seen  coming  along  the  path. 

Then  all  assembled  in  the  one-room  schoolhouse  and  began 
to  sing  the  morning  song.     Not  much  more  was  done  that  day. 

At  noon  every  one  took  his  dinner  over  to  the  woods,  where 
he  ate  and  played  until  the  afternoon  bell  rang.  All  were  then 
allowed  either  to  stay  or  to  go  home. 

That  day  was  a  day  of  tasks  to  some  and  exultant  joyous- 
ness  to  others.  The  pupils  were  all  moving  in  a  mysterious 
Avorld  of  imagination. 

One  hot  Thui'sday  afternoon,  two  summers  ago,  as  T  was 
walking  along  the  crock,  I.  struck  my  foot  against  something 
that  was  hard  and  cold  like  steel.     I  unconsciously  gave  it  a 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  369 

kick  and  was  startled  by  a  loud  report,  and  I  jumped,  I  should 
say,  two  feet  high.  When  I  had  recovered  from  my  surprise 
I  brushed  aside  the  bushes  and  found  it  was  a  .22  revolver,  of 
the  H.  &  E.  make.  There  was  a  pile  of  cartridges  near  it. 
After  I  had  unloaded  it,  I  called  a  boy  friend  and  we  started 
to  the  woods  near  Thirtieth  Street.  There  we  reloaded  the 
revolver  and  proceeded  to  have  some  fun  with  it.  We  shot 
at  a  target  and  I  must  say  we  came  as  near  hitting  it  as  if  we 
had  shot  in  the  opposite  direction.  About  the  middle  of  the 
afternoon,  as  I  was  trying  to  load  it,  I  shot  a  piece  out  of  my 
thumb.  Then  I  thought  it  was  time  to  go  home.  When  we 
reached  the  house  my  father  promptly  took  my  artillery  away 
from  me,  and  now  it  is  up  in  his  room. 

Several  summers  ago  my  two  cousins  and  I  were  walking 
along  a  country  road.  We  were  walking  slowly  along  toward 
where  a  railroad  crossed  our  road.  A  short  distance  ahead  of 
us  on  the  track  was  a  carriage,  the  sole  occupants  being  two 
small  children.  The  horse  was  making  its  way  composedly 
along  the  track,  nibbling  the  grass,  and  the  children  sitting 
contentedly,  unconscious  of  their  peril.  In  a  few  moments 
the  whistle  of  an  express  train  smote  our  ears.  A  man  has- 
tened up  and  succeeded,  step  by  step,  in  getting  it  off  the 
track.  As  the  train  rushed  by,  it  almost  struck  the  feet  of 
the  rearing  animal,  but  the  children  were  restored  to  safety. 

One  Sunday  afternoon  I,  with  several  other  persons,  started 
to  cross  a  railroad  bridge  over  White  River.  After  thoroughly 
convincing  ourselves  that  no  train  would  be  along  while  we 
were  on  the  bridge,  my  father  took  my  little  sister  and  started 
across. 

After  taking  her  safely  across,  he  came  back,  and  we  started 
across  with  the  rest  of  the  party  following  us.  We  could  not 
look  down,  lest  the  moving  water  would  make  us  dizzy,  and 
yet  we  found  it  difficult  to  step  the  ties  without  looking  down. 
When  we   were   nearly  across,  my  father  saw  a  thin  curl  of 


370  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

smoke  behind  some  hills  in  front  of  us,  and  presently  we 
heard  the  shrill  whistle  of  the  engine.  We  hurried  to  the 
end  of  the  bridge,  where  we  waited  for  the  engine  to  pass,  and 
then  we  resumed  our  journey. 

STORY-TELLING 

So  far,  the  work  in  oral  composition  has  been  that  of 
narrating  shoit  incidents  connected  with  the  pupil's  own 
experience  or  observation.  Now  the  pupil  will  find  it 
profitable  to  continue  his  work  along  a  more  difficult  line 
—  that  of  studying  and  practicing  the  art  of  story-tell- 
ing. There  is  no  other  accomplishment  more  desirable 
than  the  art  of  reproducing  in  an  effective  manner  the 
beautiful  stories  which  one  has  read  in  .  prose  and  in 
l)oetry.  In  no  other  way  can  one  give  greater  pleasure 
to  his  friends  and  companions,  for  every  one  likes  to  hear 
a  good  story. 

In  the  telling  of  a  story,  it  will  be  well  to  observe  the 
directions  and  suggestions  given  in  the  first  part  of  this 
chapter  for  the  relating  of  incidents.  First  of  all,  the 
speaker  must  have  thoroughly  in  mind  the  story  which  he 
is  to  relate  to  the  class.  In  the  beginning  he  must  make 
clear  to  his  listeners  the  situation  or  attending  circum- 
stances. He  should  not  leave  his  classmates  to  ask  the 
(}uestions  :  "  When  did  this  happen  ?  Where  did  it  happen  ? 
To  whom  did  it  happen  ?  Under  what  special  circum- 
stances did  it  happen?"  Having  given  his  introduction,  he 
must  then  relate  the  incidents  leading  up  to  the  climax  in 
such  a  way  as  to  leave  no  doubt  in  the  minds  of  his 
listeners  as  to  the  relation  between  the  incidents.  If  the 
incidents  of  the  story  happened  in  chronological  order, 
the  speaker  will  make  his  story  coherent  by  following 
that  order. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  371 

Such  expressions  as  "  the  following  day,"  "  during-  the 
course  of  the  evening,"  "  immediately,"  "  at  length," 
"finally,"  "as  years  rolled  on,"  will  help  to  keep  the  order 
of  incidents  clear  to  the  listeners.  If  the  story  is  more 
complicated,  —  if  there  are  two  or  three  series  of  incidents 
leading  up  to  the  climax  and  the  pupil  is  thus  compelled 
to  drop  one  series  for  a  time  and  take  up  another,  and  in 
this  manner  change  from  series  to  series  throughout  the 
story,  —  the  task  will  be  more  difficult.  This  kind  of 
narrative,  more  than  the  other,  depends  upon  connective 
expressions.  The  change  from  one  series  to  another  can 
be  made  clear  to  tha  listeners  through  such  expressions  as 
"  in  the  meantime,"  "  while  this  was  going  on,"  "  before 
this  time,"  "at  the  same  time." 

One  of  the  greatest  difficulties  standing  in  the  way  of 
the  pupil  who  is  learning  how  to  reproduce  a  story,  is  that 
of  condensing  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  keep  the  proper  pro- 
portion. This  difficulty  he  can  overcome  only  through 
a  great  deal  of  practice.  In  condensing,  he  should  note 
carefully  what  events  are  necessary  to  keep  the  story  going. 
These  events  he  must  give  due  prominence,  omitting  or 
subordinating  the  minor  incidents.  The  descriptions, 
too,  which  are  chosen  from  the  longer  story,  he  must 
make  subordinate  to  the  narrative.  He  should  remember 
tliat  his  listener  is  primarily  interested  in  the  progress  of 
those  events  in  the  story  which  lead  on  to  the  climax. 
The  listener  does  not  like  to  have  the  movement  of  the 
story  impeded  by  descriptions  which  do  not  illumine  the 
incidents,  either  by  furnishing  an  effective  background  for 
them  or  by  accounting  in  some  way  for  their  occurrence. 

Another  difficulty  which  the  pupil  will  find  hard  to 
overcome  is  that  of  recasting  the  story  without  adhering 
too  closely  to  the  author's  language.     He  can  avoid  this 


372  coMi'osirioN  and  rhetoric 

only  by  beinq-  so  iinl)iu'(l  with  llu^.  spirit  of  the  story,  so 
lilled  with  the  thought  of  ii,  thiit  lie  will  forget  the 
language  of  the  author  and  will  tell  the  story  as  if  it 
were  his  own. 

In  telling  stories,  as  in  relating  incidents,  the  pupil  must 
be  watchful  of  his  vocabulary,  of  his  grammar,  of  liis 
pronunciation,  enunciation,  and  intonation.  His  manner 
before  the  class  should  be  as  easy,  as  informal,  and  as  con- 
fidential as  it  would  be  if  he  were  telling  the  story  to  a 
group  of  friends  sitting  around  a  campfire  in  the  woods. 

In  the  effort  to  acijuire  skill  in  reproducing  stories  the 
pupil  wall  be  aided,  as  in  the  incident  work,  by  the  criti- 
cisms and  comments  made  by  his  classmates.  These  criti- 
cisms, if  well  made,  will  help  him  not  only  to  tell  his 
stories  well,  but  to  see  the  good  points  in  the  stories 
themselves.  The  nature  of  the  discussion  which  might 
profitably  follow  the  telling  of  a  story  is  suggested  in  the 
following  plan : 

I.    Story  as  a  whole. 

A.    Story  characterized. 

1.  Beautiful. 

a.  In  thought  developed. 
h.  Beautiful  characters, 
c.  Beautiful  imagery. 

2.  lIuiiKn-ous. 

o.  Situations. 

b.  Pictures. 

c.  Characters. 
a.  Style. 

3.  Pathetic. 

4.  AVeird. 

5.  Lively  or  spirited. 

6.  Exciting,  interesting. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  ,  373 

B.  Sources  of  interest  in  the  story. 

1.  Element  of  suspense. 

2.  Progress  of  events. 

3.  Rapid  movement. 

4.  Exciting  climax. 

5.  Vivid  pictures. 

6.  Unusual  situations. 

7.  Marvelous  coincidents. 

8.  Striking  characters. 

C.  Value  of  the  story. 

1.  Gives  pleasure. 

2.  Teaches  a  lesson. 

3.  Persuades,  indirectl}',  to  action. 

D.  Comparison  with  other  stories  or  with  life. 

1.  Similar  situations. 

2.  Similar  characters. 

3.  Similar  thought  developed  or  lesson  taught. 

II.  Questions  arising  out  of  the  story. 

A.  Symbolic  meaning. 

1.  Is  there  a  universal  truth  behind  the  story  ? 

2.  Are  the   characters   treated   as   individuals  or  as 

types  ? 

B.  Consistency. 

1.  Are  the  events  consistent  ? 

2.  Are  the  characters  consistent  ? 
a.  With  themselves  ? 

h.  With  the  events  ? 

C.  Motives. 

1.  Author's  motive. 

a.  Reason  for  writing  the  story. 
h.  Attitude  toward  his  characters. 

2.  Motives  in  the  minds  of  the  characters. 

a.  What  motives  move  the  characters  to  action. 
h.  Ethical  quality  of  motives. 

III.  Parts  of  the  story. 


374  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

A.  Setting. 

1.  Inchuk's  what. 

a.  Time. 

b.  Vlav.e. 

c.  Attending  circumstances. 

2.  Purpose. 

a.  Serves  as  background  for  story. 

b.  INIakes  the  story  seem  probable. 

c.  Gives  information. 

(I.  Aids  the  working  of  tire  plot. 

B.  I'lot. 

1.  Defined  —  chain  of  incidents  leading  to  the  climax. 

2.  Simple  or  complicated. 

3.  How  Avorked  out. 

4.  Climax  —  "  end  of  the  beginning  and  beginning  of 

the  end." 

5.  Denouement  —  final  outcome. 

C.  Characters  in  the  story. 

1.  Dress  and  appearance. 

2.  Personal  traits. 

3.  Place  in  the  story. 
IV.    Story-teller. 

A.  Manner. 

1.  Easy,  informal,  confidential. 

2.  Stiff,  formal,  disinterested. 

B.  Method  of  narration. 

1.  Vivid. 

2.  Coherent. 

3.  Spirited. 

Let  us  note  how  the  foregoing  j^lan  and  suggestions 
have  worked  out  in  actual  practice.  Read  the  stories  and 
observe  the  comments  made  by  the  different  members  of 
the  class.  Are  all  the  criticisms  justly  made?  Can  you 
add  any  criticisms  to  those  made  in  the  class  ? 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  375 


The  Legend  Beautiful 

It  was  noonday  by  the  dial  and  the  monk  was  kneeling  all 
alone  on  the  stone  floor  of  his  cell.  As  he  prayed  for  the  for- 
giveness of  his  sins  and  for  greater  self-denial,  suddenly  an 
unwonted  splendor  brightened  all  within  him,  and  without  him, 
in  his  narrow  cell  of  stone.  Looking  up,  he  saw  the  Blessed 
Vision  of  our  Lord  with  a  bright  light  like  a  garment  wrapped 
about  him.  Not  as  crucified  and  slain,  not  with  bleeding  hands 
and  feet,  did  the  monk  see  his  Master,  but  as  He  walked  in 
Galilee  when  He  healed  the  halt,  the  lame,  and  the  blind. 

In  this  attitude  of  prayer  knelt  the  monk,  wondering,  wor- 
shiping, adoring.  ''  Lord,"  he  thought,  "  in  that  thou  doest 
unto  the  least  of  mine  and  lowest  thou  hast  done  it  unto  me." 

''Unto  me,"  he  repeated,  —  "but  had  the  vision  come  to  me 
in  beggars'  clothing,  would  I  have  knelt  so  adoringly? 
Would  I  have  turned  away  with  loathing  ?  "  Thus  his  con- 
science troubled  him,  till  at  length  he  started  toward  his  cell 
and  beheld  the  convent  bright  with  a  supernatural  light  that 
extended  over  floor,  and  wall,  and  ceiling ;  but  he  paused 
with  awe-struck  silence  at  the  threshold  of  the  door,  for  the 
Vision  still  was  standing  where  he  left  it,  when  he  went  to 
feed  the  poor.  He  did  not  comprehend  the  full  meaning  until 
the  Vision  said,  ''  Hadst  thou  stayed,  I  must  have  fled." 

Criticisms 

1.  The  story  is  very  beautiful.  The  thought  that  we  can 
best  serve  Christ  by  seiwing  our  fellow-men  has  always  ap- 
pealed to  me  as  a  beautiful  one.  The  imagery,  too,  is  beau- 
tiful. The  picture  of  Christ  wrapped  in  a  bright  garment  of 
light,  standing  before  the  kneeling  monk  in  his  narrow  stone 
cell,  is  as  vivid  to  me  as  a  painting. 

2.  There  is  enough  suspense  in  the  story  to  sustain  our  in- 
terest to  the  end.     I  wondered  at  first  whether  the  monk  would 


376  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

yield  to  the  temptation  to  stay  with  the  vision  ;  then  I  won- 
dered what  would  be  the  result  of  his  going  —  whether  the 
vision  would  go  or  stay. 

3.  The  unusual  situation  made  the  story  interesting  to  me. 
Although  it  is  fitting,  it  seems  strange  that  the  monk  should 
be  so  strongly  tempted  to  do  a  sellish  thing  right  while  he  was 
praying  for  self-denial. 

4.  I  think  the  story  teaches  a  definite  lesson.  It  teaches 
that  prayers  and  worship  and  adoration  are  not  so  acceptable 
to  Christ  as  service  to  our  fellow-men. 

5.  The  story  reminds  me  of  Dr.  Van  Dyke's  story  The 
Other  Wise  Man.  You  remember  that  when  Artaban  starts 
out  in  search  of  the  Christ  he  has  three  precious  stones  which 
he  longs  to  bestow  u})on  tlie  "  King  of  the  Jews."  The  first 
one  he  sacrifices  to  help  a  fellow-traveler ;  the  second,  to  save 
the  life  of  a  child  ;  the  third,  to  rescue  a  girl  from  slavery. 
His  dearest  hope  is  disappointed  ;  for  he  has  no  jewel  to  give 
to  the  King.  But  when  he  is.  dying,  the  gates  of  Heaven  open 
and  he  hears  a  voice  saying,  '•'  Inasmuch  as  ye  have  done  it  to 
the  least  of  these  my  children,  ye  have  done  it  unto  me." 

6.  I,  too,  thought  of  a  story  that  teaches  the  same  lesson.  I 
thought  of  the  haughty  Sir  Launfal  who  wished  to  serve  Christ 
in  some  great  way,  but  who  found  in  the  end  that  the  best  way 
was  to  serve  men.  The  vision  of  Christ  with  the  halo  about 
him  also  recalled  part  of  Lowell's  story  —  the  part  where  the 
loathsome  leper  is  transfigured  into  the  glorious  image  of 
Christ. 

7.  I  was  impressed  with  the  character  of  the  monk,  because 
he  was  able  —  after  a  struggle  —  to  resist  the  greatest  temp- 
tation that  could  possibly  have  come  to  him.  His  choice  lay 
between  the  ecstasy  of  worshiping  and  adoring  the  beautiful 
vision  before  him  and  the  duty  of  feeding  the  unattractive 
poor  at  the  convent  gate.  The  temptation  was  almost  more 
than  he  could  bear ;  but  he  won  the  victory  over  self,  and 
went  bravely  to  his  duty. 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  377 

8.  The  monk's  question  as  to  how  he  might  have  felt  if 
Christ  liad  appeared  in  the  form  of  a  beggar  seems  to  me  to 
show  that  he  was  not  quite  sure  of  his  own  strength,  or  of  his 
love  for  a  needy  brother. 

9.  I  think  the  question  shows  how  conscientious  he  was. 
The  best  people  are  not  always  those  who  are  satisfied  with 
themselves.  Longfellow  means  for  us  to  understand,  I  am 
sure,  that  the  monk's  heart  was  full  of  love  for  his  needy 
brothers ;  why  did  the  convent  gate  seem  to  the  poor  on  that 
day  like  the  gate  of  Paradise,  and  the  bread  and  wine  like  a 
sacrament  ?  It  was  because  the  monk,  like  Sir  Launfal  when 
he  fed  the  leper,  was  giving  himself  with  his  alms. 

10.  I  think  you  told  the  story  well.  I  liked  your  manner  of 
telling  it,  especially;  you  seemed  to  enter  into  the  spirit  of 
Avhat  3^ou  Avere  telling. 

11.  Your  story  Avas  coherently  told.  The  situation  was 
clearly  given  in  the  first  few  sentences,  and  you  related  the 
incidents  exactly  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred.  The 
particular  expressions  which  you  used  to  denote  time  order, 
also  helped  to  make  your  story  coherent.  I  noticed  that  you 
began  one  sentence  with  the  clause,  "  As  he  prayed  " ;  another 
with  the  phrase  "Looking  up"  ;  "Thus." 

12.  It  is  difficult,  I  know,  to  tell  in  prose  a  story  written  in 
poetry.  Too  much  of  your  story  was  told  in  Longfellow's  own 
words.  In  some  parts  you  even  kept  the  rhyme.  For  instance, 
you  said,  "  Beheld  the  convent  hright  with  a  supernatural  lujht.'" 
Again  you  frequently  used  whole  sentences  from  the  story, 
changing  only  the  order  of  one  or  two  words  in  order  to  avoid 
the  rhyme.  The  sentence  beginning  "  Not  as  crucified  and 
slain  "  is  almost  exactly  like  the  one  in  the  poem. 

13.  You  added  to  the  interest  in  the  story  by  keeping  a  part 
of  it  in  direct  discourse.  By  speaking  for  himself  in  the 
story,  the  monk  makes  a  stronger  appeal  to  us. 

14.  All  the  description  which  you  introduced  adds  to  the  in- 
terest in  the  story.     The  "narrow  stone  cell,"  "the  glorified 


378  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

figure  of  Christ,"  the  "supernatural  light  which  extended  over 
floor  and  ceiling,  "  not  only  give  us  pictures  but  help  us  bet- 
ter to  understand  the  monk's  temptation  and  his  reward  in 
Christ's  approval. 

The  Pied  Piper  of  Hamelin 

Hamelin  in  P)runswick,  in  which  the  scenes  of  this  story 
are  laid,  is  situated  on  the  Weser  River.  About  five  hundred 
years  ago  the  people  suffered  greatly  from  a  plague  of  rats. 
They  killed  the  cats,  fought  the  dogs,  nibbled  the  babies,  and 
even  made  nests  inside  the  men's  Sunday  hats. 

At  last  the  poor  people  could  stand  it  no  longer.  They 
flocked  to  the  town  hall  and  told  the  Mayor  and  corporation 
that  if  something  was  not  done  immediately,  they  would  send 
them  all  away.  At  this  the  Mayor  was  greatly  alarmed.  He 
and  the  council  sat  for  an  hour  racking  their  brains.  Sud- 
denly there  was  a  knock  at  the  door.  The  Mayor  called, 
"Come  in,"  and  there  entered  a  strange  figure. 

It  was  a  tall  man  in  a  red  and  yellow  coat.  He  had  small 
blue  eyes,  light,  long  hair,  and  a  smooth  but  swarthy  skin. 
Advancing  to  the  table,  he  said,  "  Your  honors,  I  have  the 
power  to  draw  after  me  all  creatures  creeping  or  flying  or 
swimming,  but  only  use  this  charm  on  things  that  do  people 
harm,  and  I  am  called  the  Pied  Piper."  Here  they  noticed 
that  around  his  neck  was  a  pipe.  "  If  I  can  rid  your  town  of 
rats,  will  you  give  me  a  thousand  guilders?"  They  prouiised 
'  him  his  reward,  and  he  stepped  into  the  street.  Ere  he  had 
blown  three  notes  of  his  wonderful  music  the  people  heard  a 
mighty  rumbling,  and  out  of  the  houses  came  the  rats,  —  big 
rats,  little  rats,  rats  brown,  gray,  and  black,  "Whole  families 
came  tumbling  out. 

He  led  them  through  the  streets  until  he  came  to  the  Weser 
River,  where  all  were  drowned.  Then  there  was  great  rejoic- 
ing in  Hamelin.  The  ISIayor  was  telling  them  to  poke  out 
the  nests,  build  up  the  holes,  and  leave  no  trace  of  the  rats, 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  379 

when  suddenly  the  Piper  appeared,  and  asked  for  his  thousand 
guilders. 

The  Mayor  looked  blue,  for  council  dinners  had  made  havoc 
with  the  money.  So  he  refused  to  give  him  a  thousand 
guilders  and  offered  him  fifty.  But  the  Piper  was  not  to  be 
trifled  with,  and  said  that  unless  they  paid  him  at  once,  he 
would  pipe  in  a  different  way.  At  this  the  Mayor  grew  angry 
and  said:  ''Am  I  to  be  insulted  by  a  lazy  piper?  You  may 
blow  your  pipe  till  you  burst."  Again  the  Piper  stepped  into 
the  street  and  began  to  play.  This  time  there  was  great  shout- 
ing and  laughter  as  all  the  little  boys  and  girls  followed  the 
Piper. 

The  people  stood  as  if  turned  to  stone  and  saw  their  chil- 
dren led  away.  Once  outside  of  the  town,  he  turned  his  steps 
toward  a  hill  that  was  very  high.  "  Now,"  thought  the  people, 
"he  cannot  cross."  But  when  he  reached  the  foot,  a  door 
opened  and  they  all  went  in.  Then  it  closed  up  again  and 
the  people  never  saw  their  children  any  more. 

Criticisms 

1.  Your  story,  I  think,  is  well  selected.  The  quick  suc- 
cession of  incidents,  the  little  touches  of  humor,  the  brief 
but  suggestive  descriptions  —  all  make  the  story  lively  and 
interesting. 

2.  I  like  the  mystery  in  the  story.  A  fairy  story  always 
did  appeal  to  me. 

3.  I  am  glad  the  story  turned  out  just  as  it  did.  The  un- 
grateful people  deserved  to  be  punished.  The  story  made  me 
think  of  the  punishment  that  God  sent  to  Pharaoh  because  he 
failed  to  keep  his  promise  with  the  children  of  Israel. 

4.  The  story,  I  think,  illustrates  how  willing  most  people 
are  to  make  promises  of  any  kind  in  time  of  danger,  and  how 
ready  they  are  to  forget  these  promises  as  soon  as  the  danger 
is  over.  It  also  illustrates  how  ungrateful  people  are  for  the 
greatest  benefits  bestowed  upon  them. 


380  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

5.  You  succeeded  much  better  than  Caroline  did  in  get- 
ting away  from  the  language  of  the  poem.  1  noticed  in  one 
place,  however,  that  you  used  the  i)oetic  word  "ere"  instead 
of  "before,"  which  belongs  to  i)rose. 

G.  The  spirited  but  confidential  manner  in  which  you  told 
the  story  seemed  to  me  especially  adapted  to  the  lively  fairy 
story. 

7.  You  made  good  use  of  connective  expressions  to  se- 
cure coherence,  and  excellent  use  of  compound  predicates  to 
secure  rapid  movement.  "  About  five  hundred  years  ago,"  "  at 
last,"  "suddenly,"  "advancing  toward  the  table,"  "then," 
"again,"  are  expressions  which  help  to  keep  the  progress  of 
the  story  clearly  in  our  minds.  In  these  two  sentences,  particu- 
larly, you  made  good  use  of  compound  predicates  to  condense 
your  story  :  "They  killed  the  cats,  four/ht  the  dogs,  tiibhled  the 
babies,  and  even  hnilt  their  nests  in  the  men's  Sunday  hats  ;" 
and  "The  Mayor  told  the  people  to  ^wke  out  the  nests,  huild 
up  the  holes,  and  leave  no  trace  of  the  rats. 

8.  The  havoc  which  the  rats  made  in  the  little  town  must 
have  been  very  serious  to  the  people,  but  Browning  tells  about 
it  in  such  a  way  that  it  is  funny  to  us.  It  makes  me  laugh  to 
think  of  rats  bold  enough  and  inconsiderate  enough  to  nibble 
the  babies  when  their  careless  mothers  were  out  of  the  room, 
and  to  build  their  nests  in  Sunday  hats  which  no  doubt  careful 
wives  had  put  away  for  their  vain  husbands.  The  picture, 
too,  of  rats  of  all  sizes  and  colors  tumbling  out  of  their  nests 
and  following  in  orderly  procession  after  the  queer  old  piper 
was  very  funny  to  me.  All  this  humor  you  kept  in  the  story 
much  better  than  a  boy  whom  I  heard  tell  it  the  other  day. 
That  boy  told  us  nothing  but  the  facts  of  the  story.  He  gave 
us  no  description  of  the  Piper  or  of  the  rats,  no  idea  of  the 
kind  of  havoc  which  tlie  rats  made,  and  not  much  idea  of  the 
character  of  the  ungrateful  people. 

9.  The  ending  of  the  story  is  rather  abrupt,  but  I  like  it 
because  it  leaves  us  with  a  feeling  of  mystery  which  it  is  a 
pleasure  to  us  to  try  to  explain  for  ourselves. 


OIL\L  COMPOSITION  381 

10.  One  of  your  sentences  lacked  unity.  You  said,  '^  I  use  this 
charm  only  on  things  that  do  no  harm,  and  I  am  called  the 
Pied  Piper."  I  can  see  no  relation  between  these  two  ideas. 
The  sentence  "  They  noticed  that  around  his  neck  was  a  pipe  " 
is  incoherent.     Was  the  pipe  really  around  his  neck  ? 

11.  I  do  not  like  the  expression  "  build  up  the  holes." 
Wouldn't  it  be  better  to  say  "  close  up  "  or  "stop  up  the  holes"  ? 

12.  I  liked  the  use  of  the  words  "  racked,"  "  tumbling," 
"nibbled,"  "shouting,"  and  "poked."  They  all  have  some  go 
in  them. 

EXERCISE 

Mead  the  following  reproductio7is  and  orir/inal  stories  told 
hi/  pupils,  and  criticise  them  and  discuss  them  in  accordance 
toith  suggestions  which  you  may  get  from  the  outline  on  page 
372. 

Summary  of  "The  Specter  Bridegroom" 

At  the  castle  of  the  Baron  Von  Landshort,  the  marriage  feast 
is  arranged,  and  the  guests  are  assembled  to  witness  the  formal 
betrothal  of  the  Baron's  daughter  to  the  young  Count  Von 
Altenburg.  The  couple  have  never  met,  their  marriage  having 
been  arranged  when  they  were  small  children. 

The  hour  grows  late  and  the  groom  doesn't  appear.  All  are 
on  the  verge  of  distraction,  when  there  are  heard  the  hoof  beats 
of  a  rapidly  approaching  horse.  The  Baron  rushes  out,  meets 
a  young  cavalier,  hurries  him  into  the  banquet  hall,  and  there 
the  feast  progresses  through  merriment  and  story-telling.  At 
the  end  of  an  interesting  story  told  by  the  host,  the  supposed 
bridegroom  rises  from  his  seat  and  makes  this  startling  an- 
nouncement: "My  engagement  is  with  no  bride;  I  must  away 
to  Wurtzburg  cathedral ;  I  am  a  dead  man ;  the  worms,  the 
worms  are  waiting  for  me  ;  I  have  been  slain  by  robbers ;  at  the 
hour  of  midnight  I  am  to  be  buried ;  I  must  keep  my  prom- 
ise."    Tlien  to  the  amazement  of  all  he  walks  out. 


382  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

The  next  morning  the  news  reaches  the  castle  that  tlie  young 
Count,  while  on  his  way  to  the  feast  the  previous  evening,  lias 
been  slain  by  a  band  of  robbers.  Of  course  every  one  that  has 
been  present  at  the  feast  thinks  that  he  has,  the  evening  before, 
entertained  the  disembodied  spirit  of  the  young  Count. 

A  few  evenings  after,  the  daughter  of  the  l>aron  insists  on 
sleeping  in  a  different  apartment,  one  of  her  aunts  sleeping  with 
her.  After  the  hour  of  bedtime  there  is  heard  coming  from 
the  garden  below  the  window  strange  and  beautiful  strains  of 
•music.  On  reaching  the  window,  they  both  see  standing  in  the 
open,  the  moonlight  shining  upon  his  upturned  face,  the  supposed 
specter  of  the  wedding  feast.  The  aunt  screams  with  fright 
and  instantly  the  specter  disappears.  A  few  nights  after  this 
the  Baron's  daughter  insists  on  sleeping  alone  in  the  apartment. 
The  next  morning  the  people  in  the  castle,  fearing  the  goblin 
has  come  again,  come  rushing  into  the  deserted  rooms;  but,  as 
Irving  says,  '^the  bird  is  flown." 

The  following  morning,  just  as  the  Baron  is  about  to  mount 
his  steed  to  go  in  search  of  liis  daughter,  there  is  seen  approach- 
ing over  the  crest  of  a  hill  a  young  lady  mounted  on  a  palfrey, 
attended  by  a  young  cavalier.  As  she  nears  the  castle,  the 
I^aron  recognizes  his  daughter. 

After  throwing  herself  at  her  father's  feet,  she  makes  this 
explanation  of  the  strange  episode : 

When  the  Count  was  killed,  this  young  man  was  sent  to  the 
castle  to  inform  the  Baron  what  had  happened  ;  but  when  he  was 
met  so  unceremoniously  and  given  no  time  to  explain,  he  had 
to  remain  quiet.  During  the  course  of  the  evening  he 
made  several  attempts  to  explain,  but  was  cut  off  by  the  Baron. 
\yhen  the  Baron  told  his  story,  which  was  about  a  supposed 
goblin  that  had  carried  off  a  bride  to  be  and  married  her,  the 
temptation  to  impersonate  the  young  Count  became  irresistible, 
so  he  thought  he  would  try  to  do  the  best  he  could.  Night 
after  night,  unknown  to  any  one  in  the  castle  save  the  girl  wliom 
he  came  to  woo,  he  paid  liis  visits.     Knowing  her  father  would 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  383 

not  consent  to  their  marriage,  they  had  planned  an  elopement 
and  had  returned  to  ask  forgiveness.  The  Baron  pardoned  the 
young  couple  on  the  spot  and  matters  were  arranged  happily. 

Billy  and  the  Circus 

A  tiny  barefoot  boy  crept  down  the  long  stairway,  through 
the  dimly  lighted  hall,  and  out  into  the  gray  mist  of  the  dawn. 

The  world  was  waking  earlier  than  usual  this  morning,  for 
the  aunts  and  uncles  were  expected  from  the  country,  and  the 
chores  absolutely  necessary  must  be  finished  and  out  of  the  way. 
Indeed,  such  a  world  wonder  as  "Sells  Brothers'  Big  Show" 
was  not  to  be  missed.  For  weeks  past  people  had  stood,  open- 
mouthed,  before  the  posters,  gazing  at  Madame  Pemberton 
sailing  through  the  air  in  a  big  red  auto  as  she  makes  the 
"  world-renowned  leap  for  life."  Then  what  could  be  more 
wonderful  than  little  Susie  Clayton  lightly  riding  on  tiptoe  the 
famous  Arabian  steeds,  balancing  in  her  up-raised  hand  a  man 
two  or  three  times  her  own  weight  ?  There  were  numberless 
crowds  of  these  light,  airy,  fairy  maids,  all  flying  round  some 
place  —  somehow.  There  was  the  renowned  Jones  family, 
whose  father  could  carry  a  horse  in  one  hand  and  a  daughter  in 
the  other.  There  were  yards  and  yards  of  men  and  women, 
all  swinging  from  one  trapeze  and,  to  top  it  all  oft",  a  few  lions 
and  tigers  were  flying  through  the  air,  hissing  and  growling, 
while  elephants  carried  the  stately  Arab,  and  monkeys  and 
poodle  dogs  were  tacked  on  at  any  convenient  place  in  the 
picture. 

So  our  little  companion,  whom  we  shall  know  as  Billy,  set 
out  for  the  circus  with  the  thought  of  these  flaring  posters  in 
his  mind.  He  heard  a  cheery  whistle  from  some  woodshed, 
accompanied  by  the  chopping  of  kindling.  The  birds  began  to 
chirp  and  peep  cautiously  from  their  bowers,  while  the  long- 
drawn-out  crow  of  a  rooster  floated  out  on  the  misty  air.  The 
dew  bathed  his  feet  as  he  took  a  short  cut  through  the  meadow, 


384  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

and  the  dust  of  the  road,  damp  at  this  early  hour  with  the  dew, 
felt  soft  to  his  feet,  as  he  tripped  merrily  along,  thinking  only 
once  or  twice  of  the  family  and  the  punishment  which  awaited 
him  on  his  return. 

Finally,  however,  he  was  in  sight  of  the  grounds,  and  the 
great  white  tent  stood  out  distinctly  against  the  blue  sky. 
The  sun  was  up  and  the  circus  colony  was  awake  and  stirring, 
as  they  probably  had  been  all  night.  The  horses  were  being 
put  in  shape  for  the  coming  parade.  The  other  animals  could 
be  heard  within  the  tent  and,  as  Billy  gazed  in  wide-eyed 
astonishment  at  the  door  which  seemed  to  be  the  entrance  to 
all  these  wonders,  he  caught  occasional  glimpses  of  the  swing- 
ing trunk  of  an  elephant  and  tiny  black  and  white  ponies. 

Turning  from  this,  however,  he  beheld  the  dining  tent  where 
a  profusion  of  strong  coffee  was  being  slopped  about  and  people 
roughly  joked  back  and  forth  over  the  wooden  tables.  Al- 
though this  sight  was  anything  but  inviting,  it  brought  to 
Billy  the  remembrance  that  his  breakfast  had  been  badly  neg- 
lected, and  a  little  voice  kept  telling  him,  in  spite  of  himself, 
that  he  was  hungry  and  would  like  to  have  a  hot  roll  or  pancake. 

He  was  brought  from  this  remembrance  of  his  forgotten 
meal,  however,  by  the  salutation  of  one  of  those  wonderful 
creatures,  in  a  red  coat,  yelling  —  "Hey,  kid,  wanter  job  ter 
git  inter  the  show?" 

Billy's  heart  jumped.  Did  he!  Well,  he  guessed  he  knew 
how  all  those  brothers  and  sisters  wanted  to  go  and  how  he 
could  tell  of  the  wondrous  sights  when  he  got  home.  It  took 
only  a  second  for  these  things  to  go  through  his  bright  mind, 
and  he  answered,  "  You  bet." 

All  day  long  he  toiled  first  at  this  and  then  at  that.  He  car- 
ried water  to  the  elephants  till  his  little  back  ached,  but  he 
never  whimpered.  He  was  then  gruffly  told  to  peel  potatoes. 
Peel  potatoes !  Well,  he  did  so,  although  his  chubby  fingers 
bled  from  the  cuts  of  the  clumsy  knife.  He  carried  great  rolls 
of  canvas,  two  or  three  times  his  own  size,  into  the  tent ;  ran 


ORAL  COMPOSITION  385 

errand  after  errand,  always  being  slandered  for  his  slowness. 
He  even  worked  until  they  told  him  to  stop  for  fear  he  would 
hurt  himself. 

Now,  although  his  feet  were  heavy  and  his  small  body,  as  we 
say,  "  worn  to  the  ragged  edge,"  his  heart  was  light,  and  he  im- 
mediately ran  for  the  great  show  tent.  He  was  not  selfish,  but 
posted  himself  in  a  very  modest  jjosition  on  the  board  seats. 
His  whole  nature  was  all  a-quiver  with  excitement,  waiting  for 
the  coming  performance. 

Streams  and  streams  of  people  flooded  into  the  tent.  Yes, 
there  was  Pank  Broady,  whose  father  had  gotten  three  com- 
plimentary tickets  for  letting  them  put  some  posters  on  his 
chicken  house,  and  there  was  Joe  Stinnet,  whose  parents  were 
away,  and  whose  uncle  had  given  him  a  complimentary  for  the 
afternoon.  All  these  things  moved  before  Billy's  eyes  from 
his  elevated  position,  and  he  thought  of  the  wondrous  tale  he 
could  tell  upon  his  return  home. 

But,  wait,  Avhat  was  that  little  figure  flitting  along  with 
Buster  Eoss  ?     Could  it  be  Grace  ? 

Yes,  there  was  no  doubt  about  it,  and  -with  Buster.  The  cir- 
cus and  everything  else  flew  from  Billy's  mind.  Grace  was 
with  Buster,  —  that  Avas  enough.  At  the  identical  moment, 
however,  he  felt  a  strong  grip  on  his  collar,  some  mysterious 
force  jerked  him  down  in  front  of  all  the  people,  and  the  man 
in  putting  him  out  was  not  at  all  particular  how  hard  he  kicked. 
There  he  stood  on  the  outside  of  the  tent,  a  forlorn,  tired,  crushed 
little  object;  bewildered,  and  Avith  his  pride  stabbed;  for  al- 
though things  swam  before  his  eyes  during  that  awful  incident, 
he  had  noticed  one  thing,  —  Grace  had  laughed.  He  hardly 
realized  what  had  been  done,  but  he  knew  one  thing,— he  was 
put  out  of  the  tent  as  one  who  had  stolen  his  way  in. 

His  first  thought  was  of  the  man  who  had  hired  him,  but  he 
was  nowhere  to  be  found,  and  finally,  in  his  desperation,  he 
rushed  up  to  the  ticket  agent  and  told  his  story.  The  only 
answ^er  from  this  character,  however,  was  a  sarcastic  smile  and  a 

2c 


386  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

renewal  of  his  barking :  "  This  way  to  get  your  tickets !  One 
at  a  time  !  There,  gentlemen,  don't  crowd  !  Hurry  !  Hurry  ! '' 
AVhile  his  companion,  in  a  nasal  voice,  started  a  yell  for  the  side 
show  :  "  See  the  snake  charmer  !  Bedelia,  the  snake  charmer  ! 
a  dime  !  ten  cents  !  a  tenth  part  of  a  dollar  I  "  "  This  way,  this 
way,  just  beginning,  just  commencing !  don't  miss  it,"  and  next 
to  him  a  band  of  minstrel  singers  clogged  around  in  their  most 
graceful  manner  and  shrieked  Kentucky  lullabies. 

There  was  but  one  thing  to  do,  and  even  in  his  forlorn  state, 
he  realized  that  —  to  go  home.  So  with  dirty  face,  tired  mus- 
cles, and  aching  heart,  he  ran  home  in  the  wild  hope  that  the 
family  had  decided  to  go,  and  he  might  see  the  circus  in  spite 
of  all  odds.  The  sweet  breath  of  the  new-mown  hay,  the  tin- 
kling of  the  stream,  the  shade  on  the  well-worn  path,  had  no 
allurements  for  him.  His  one  wild  desire  was  to  get  home,  and 
get  there  quick. 

Finally  he  had  gained  the  gate,  but  his  heart  sank  clear  to 
the  bottom  of  his  toes ;  for  no  one  was  in  the  yard ;  and  then 
it  came  up  into  his  throat  with  a  great  gulp  which  choked  him 
as  he  found  the  house  empty  and  every  one  gone.  He  rushed 
from  room  to  room,  frantically  crying  for  some  of  the  family, 
but  only  the  uncanny  echo  of  his  own  words  answered  him. 
Then  his  eye  caught  siglit  of  a  tiny  bit  of  soiled  paper  tacked 
on  tlie  kitchen  door,  and  devouring  it  with  his  dark  eyes  he 
read,  in  a  scratchy  hand : 

"  Gone  to  circus.  Had  ice  cream  for  dinner.  Granny  Pemroy 
brought  us  a  gallon.  You're  goin'to  get  er  lickin'  when  we  get 
home.    Pa  said  so.    Tom."    "  P.  S.    We  have  reserved  seats."  ' 

With  this  bit  of  crumpled  j^aper  in  his  hand,  he  knew  not 
which  way  to  turn,  till  finally,  half  involuntarily,  he  found  a 
shaded  nook  among  the  bushes,  a  favorite  haunt  of  the  boys, 
and  there  dropped  down,  one  disconsolate  little  heap,  sobbing 
from  the  very  tips  of  his  chubby  brown  feet.  He  buried  his 
dirty  face  in  the  tired  little  arms  until  the  sleeve  was  all  wet 
and  warm  from  the  flood  of  tears.     Yes,  he  believed  he  would 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  387 

starve  himself  to  death.  Maybe  when  they  found  his  body, 
they  woukl  be  sorry  they  had  not  waited  for  him ;  and  now  he 
could  see  Grace  weeping  over  his  coffin.  To  his  tired  mind 
imagination  came  easily,  and  the  idea  grew  and  grew,  until  it 
became  a  monster,  Avhich  in  turn  swallowed  him  whole.  The 
minister  would  preach  the  funeral,  and  say  nice  things  and 
scowl  at  the  people,  and  all  the  family  wo;dd  wear  mourning 
just  as  they  did  when  Auntie  Nichols  died.  Grace  would  be 
there  and  cry  and  cry  until  her  eyes  were  all  red  and  swollen. 
Maybe,  however,  it  would  be  better  to  have  a  lion  escape  from 
the  circus,  —  but  by  this  time  the  sand  man  had  claimed  his 
own,  and  in  Billy's  nightmare  there  was  a  confused  notion  of 
starving  boys,  of  lions,  of  beautiful  ladies  in  mourning  riding 
on  tiptoe  the  great  horses,  and  he  was  just  lying  in  his  coffin 
scornfully  surveying  it  all,  when  he  was  awakened  by  the 
cheering  of  the  boys,  as  Tom  imitated  some  hair-raising  act  of 
the  circus.  Then,  although  Billy  was  hurried  away  to  bed  as 
soon  as  he  made  his  appearance,  it  is  not  strange  to  say  that 
he  did  not  receive  the  promised  thrashing.  Mother  decided  he 
had  had  enough  punishment  for  one  day. 

Lachesis 

A  gentle  breeze  wafted  a  hint  of  summer  across  the  San 
Francisco  harbor,  the  sun  scintillated  on  the  undulating  wave- 
lets ;  the  spirit  of  spring  permeated  the  day,  faultless  but  for 
one  dark  cloud,  "  no  bigger  than  a  man's  hand,"  low  on  the 
horizon  ;  and  on  that  day  the  steamer  Selj^^iic  sailed  for  the 
South  Sea  Islands. 

There  was  a  great  fluttering  of  handkerchiefs  until  the 
Golden  Gate  faded  from  sight,  and  then  the  passengers  settled 
down  to  observe  the  ship  and  their  fellow-voyagers.  A  party 
of  youngsters  were  diplomatically  making  the  captain's  ac- 
quaintance with  an  eye  to  delightful  romps  on  shipboard, 
while  their  indulgent  parents  regarded  their  overtures  with 
amusement.     A   very  little  woman  with   fourteen,   parcels  of 


388  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

assorted  sizes  was  examining  her  luggage  and  checking  it  off 
on  her  fingers,  to  the  delight  of  three  or  four  girls,  who  were 
giggling  over  their  farewell  gifts  and  comparing  bouquets  and 
bonbons  with  the  greatest  of  interest.  An  asthmatic  old  lady 
with  a  fat  poodle  and  a  dispirited-looking  cockatoo  was  ab- 
sorbed in  confiding  her  motives  for  taking  the  voyage  to  a 
severe-looking  woman  with  *'  symptoms " ;  and  a  blase  globe- 
trotter, exploiting  what  he  termed  "  the  most  convenient 
traveling  bag  in  two  continents,  sir,"  completed  the  group  in 
that  corner  of  the  ship. 

Somewhat  apart  from  these  were  an  elderly  man  and  a  girl 
of  nineteen,  evidently  father  and  daughter.  Both  had  fine, 
slender,  high-arched  noses,  clear  eyes,  and  well-cut  cliins,  and 
both  had  a  charming  air  of  self-possession.  They  seemed  to 
be  boon  companions  despite  their  difference  in  years,  and  their 
devotion  to  each  other  was  a  beautiful  feature  of  the  voyage, 
to  the  other  passengers ;  for  the  father  seemed  to  regard  his 
daughter  as  a  treasure  to  be  carefully  guarded,  and  she  looked 
upon  him  as  a  marvel  of  learning  and  nobility. 

The  voyage  was  a  deliglitful  one  —  bright  skies  above, 
bright  seas  below,  with  an  occasional  glimpse  of  a  reef-beset, 
palm-crowned  tropic  island ;  but  the  small,  dark  cloud  still 
hung  on  the  horizon.  The  passengers  sped  the  time  in  various 
ways  —  the  more  indolent  reclined  in  steamer  chairs  and  luxu- 
riated in  the  charm  of  the  unvarying  sunshine ;  the  investigat- 
ing spirits  amused  themselves  by  examining  with  microscopes 
the  tiny  sea  things  they  caught  in  a  net ;  the  children  seemed 
all  over  the  place  at  once,  investigating  the  mysteries  of  the 
steamer.  The  nervous  little  woman  eontinnod  to  count  her 
parcels  daily,  almost  reducing  herself  to  distraction  by  luu- 
unceasing  negligence;  and  the  asthmatic  old  lady  declared  that 
she  was  worn  to  a  thread  by  continually  rescuing  lior  ])('ts 
from  the  clutches  of  the  admiring  cliildren.  The  elderly 
gentleman  and  his  daughter  seemed  absorbed  in  each  other, 
altliough    they   were    exquisitely   courteous   to   their    fellow- 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  389 

voyagers,  and  they  laughed  and  conversed  through  the  long^ 
sunny  days  like  congenial  comrades,  as  indeed  they  were. 

The  day  when  the  Samoan  Islands  were  sighted  was  as 
bright  as  all  the  others,  but  its  close  was  remarkable.  The 
sun  hung  long  just  above  the  horizon  like  a  great  red,  menac- 
ing eye ;  then  gradually  it  seemed  to  sink  in  the  water,  and 
the  afterglow  merged  into  the  shadows  of  twilight.  The 
small,  dark  cloud  which  had  been  following  the  ship  slowly 
began  to  grow  large,  until  it  overcast  the  twilight  sky ;  and 
that  night  the  storm  broke. 

Great  waves  gathered  and  tossed  the  ship  about  like  a  leaf, 
the  wind  roared,  and  unholy  noises  from  the  deep  rose  above 
the  tumult.  The  vessel  rolled  and  swayed  as  it  was  borne  by 
the  angry  sea  nearer  to  the  fatal  coral  reef  of  the  islands.  The 
passengers  huddled  together  in  overmastering  fear.  All  night 
the  storm  raged,  with  the  ship  at  its  mercy,  and  when  the  first 
glimmer  of  dawn  appeared,  it  seemed  to  summon  all  its  furious 
strength,  and  dashed  the  ship  on  to  the  reef  with  a  hideous, 
crunching  sound. 

Of  all  the  lifeboats  which  had  been  hastily  launched,  but 
one  reached  safety,  its  occupants  half  dead  with  horror  and 
exhaustion.  The  friendly  natives  of  the  island  which  the  boat 
had  managed  to  reach,  flocked  to  the  shore  and  aided  the  res- 
cued so  willingly  that  they  were  soon  able  to  rejoice  over  their 
miraculous  escape.  But  not  every  one  rejoiced.  A  certain 
elderly  man  made  a  rapid  survey  of  the  group  on  the  shore, 
and,  finding  no  girl  of  nineteen  among  them,  sank  on  the  sand, 
overwhelmed  by  his  discovery.  His  daughter,  his  treasure,  was 
not  among  the  rescued  !  Bitter  thoughts  flooded  his  brain  ;  he 
cursed  the  cruel  fate  that  had  brought  him,  so  old,  to  safety, 
and  his  daughter,  so  young  and  lovely,  for  whom  he  would 
gladly  have  given  his  life,  to  death.  Gradually,  however,  hope 
—  that  elusive  phantom  —  superseded  the  despair  in  his  bosom, 
and  on  the  very  next  day  he  set  out,  in  a  boat  manned  by  na- 
tives, to  search  for  his  daughter,  in  the  hope  that  she  might 


390  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

have  been  cast  asliove  alive  on  one  of  the  nnnierous  neigliboring 
iskinds. 

After  a  few  days'  sailing  and  searching,  they  toncluMl  on  a 
small,  rocky  island,  not  many  miles  from  the  scene  of  the 
wreck.  It  was  a  forbidding  place,  reef-beset  and  devoid  of 
vegetation;  and  after  a  hasty  search,  the  father  ordered  the 
boat  to  sail  to  more  likely  spots.  It  was  twilight;  and  as 
the  moon  rose,  something  stirred  in  a  sheltered  niche  between 
two  rocks,  and  stood  erect.  It  was  a  girl,  very  white  and  thin, 
with  a  fine,  slender,  high-arched  nose,  clear  eyes,  and  a  well- 
cut  chin,  and  across  the  moonlit  waters,  out  at  sea,  the  dark 
outline  of  a  boat  was  visible,  rapidly  growing  smaller  in  the 
distance. 

DESCRIPTION 

When  the  pupils  were  relating  incidents  and  stories  be- 
fore their  class,  they  realized,  perhaps,  how  important  it 
was  to  the  interest  in  the  stories  to  make  their  listeners 
see  clearly  the  persons,  jdaces,  and  things  which  the  speak- 
ers were  telling  about.  Doubtless  they  felt  that  the 
description  in  the  stories  was  the  hardest  part  of  their 
work.  We  offer  here  a  few  suggestions  for  descriptions 
in  oral  composition  : 

1.  Let  the  picture  which  you  wish  to  convey  be  per- 
fectly clear  in  your  own  mind  before  you  attempt  to  give 
it  to  another. 

2.  In  the  beginning  let  your  descriptions  be  given  from 
a  single  point  of  view.  Do  not  try  to  tell  more  than  you 
can  see  at  a  glance. 

3.  Let  your  point  of  view  be  well  chosen.  It  is  easier 
to  describe  a  room  from  an  oi)en  doorway  than  it  is  to 
describe  it  from  a  position  in  the  middle  of  the  room  ;  to 
describe  a  landscape  from  the  top  of  a  tower  or  a  hill  than 
to  describe  it   from  a  position  on  a  level  with  the  scene  ; 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  391 

to  describe  a  building  from  a  reasonable  distance  than  to 
describe  it  from  a  position  close  to  the  building. 

4.  Note  carefully  the  details  which  you  will  need  to 
make  use  of  in  putting  the  picture  together.  The  striking 
features  of  an  object  will,  if  skillfully  presented,  often 
serve  to  convey  a  complete  picture  of  the  object.  In  de- 
scribing a  room,  for  instance,  you  would  naturally  begin 
with  the  larger  details  which  gave  you  your  first  general 
impression — -with  tlie  size,  shape,  and  decoration.  Having 
given  this  general  impression,  you  would  then  make  use  of 
other  characteristic  details  which  would  complete  the  pic- 
ture and  make  it  effective. 

5.  Be  careful  in  the  grouping  of  details.  If  your  pic- 
ture is  composed  of  a  number  of  objects,  be  careful  to  keep 
the  relative  positions  of  these  objects  clear.  In  a  picture 
of  this  kind,  the  most  striking  object  in  the  group  may 
serve  as  a  starting  point,  or  as  a  center  around  which  the 
other  objects  may  be  grouped.  The  furniture  in  a  room, 
for  instance,  may  be  effectively  grouped  in  relation  to  a 
fireplace,  a  center  table,  or  an  old-fashioned  bed.  In  a 
landscape  picture,  the  hills,  the  woods,  and  the  meadows 
may  be  presented  in  their  relation  to  a  river. 

6.  Choose  words  expressing  form,  feeling,  action,  color, 
and  sound. 

EXERCISE 

Note  the  following  descriptions  ivhich  tvere  given  in  a 
recitation  in  oral  composition.  Did  the  pupils  ivh'o  gave 
the  compositions  liave  clear  pictures  in  mind  ?  Can  you  get 
the  pup iVs  point  of  view  in  each  one?  Is  the  point  of  view 
changed  in  any  of  the  descriptions?  In  which  one?  Are 
the  details  well  chosen  and  well  grouped  ?  Do  the  ivords 
used  convey  definite,  vivid  impressions? 


392  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


A  Walk 

On  a  warm,  sunny  afternoon,  when  the  leaves  are  beginning 
to  turn  and  the  grasses  to  grow  feathery,  I  like  to  take  the  walk 
on  the  towpath  from  Fairview  to  lliverside.  Along  the  canal 
you  look  up,  on  your  left,  to  those  high  cliffs,  in  some  places  cut 
into  ridges  and  valleys  by  the  rain.  In  other  places  they  are 
covered  with  low  bushes,  bright  and  yellow  in  color,  and  still 
farther  on,  with  shrubs  untouched  by  our  recent  frosts.  After 
a  part  of  the  path  is  left  behind,  the  river  comes  into  view  on 
the  right.  Between  the  towpath  and  the  river  is  a  marshy 
stretch,  lower  than  the  surface  of  the  canal.  This  strip  is  cov- 
ered with  large  old  trees  and  thick  underbrush,  beginning  to 
change  color.  Wild  blackberry  bushes,  with  their  swaying 
branches  of  dark  red  leaves  and  prickly  thorns,  stretched  out 
to  clutch  the  passer-by,  mark  the  side  of  the  road  toward  the 
river.  Beyond  the  river,  in  long  stretches  now  and  then,  are  the 
cornfields  dotted  over  with  their  shocks  of  ripened  corn.  And 
thus  the  canal  winds  on,  sometimes  near  the  river  and  some- 
times veering  far  away,  but  always  offering  something  beauti- 
ful to  look  at  along  its  banks.  The  whole  walk  is  passed  in 
stillness,  except  for  the  noise  of  blackbirds  and  the  rustling  of 
dead  leaves. 

A    FORGOTTEX    KOAD 

It  was  a  very  promising  looking  road.  It  was  not  muddy ; 
neither  was  it  dusty,  for  it  had  been  forgotten  for  so  long  a 
time  that  the  grass  had  grown  over  its  once  well-trodden 
surface,  and  the  blackberry  bushes  arched  over  it  from  both 
sides,  leaving  only  a  narrow  lane  between  the  massive  pine 
pillars  and  dense  undergrowth.  It  looked  very  inviting :  the 
shrubbery  waved  in  the  breeze  and  seemed  to  beckon  to  me 
pleadingly  to  enter  its  cool  shade;  even  the  grass  rustled 
insinuatingly  and  seemed  to  call  out  to  me,  "Going?"  in  such 
a  tantalizing  manner  that  I  immediately  accepted  the  invitation 


ORAL   COMPOSITION  393 

and  made  my  way  into  the  forest.  I  walked  slowly ;  there  was 
nothing  about  the  road  that  encouraged  haste;  on  both  sides 
the  bushes  drooped  lazily  to  the  ground,  the  ivy  hung  dreamily 
*in  great  streamers  from  the  interlaced  branches  above ;  the 
silence  was  unbroken  ;  even  the  marsh  marigolds  that  grew 
directly  in  the  path  drooped  their  golden  blossoms  languidly  to 
the  cool  green  moss,  or  rested  them  wearily  on  delicate  fern 
leaves.  There  was  no  sign  of  life,  save  a  towhee  that  darted 
noiselessly  across  the  road  with  a  quick  note  of  surprise,  and 
disappeared  in  the  underbrush,  and  a  chipmunk  that  sat  on  a 
half-decayed  stump  and  ate  heartily  of  the  red  fruit  of  the 
raspberries.  In  some  spots  it  was  marshy,  and  the  water  oozed 
up  through  the  dank  moss,  forming  a  little  pool  about  my  foot 
that  receded  with  a  weird,  gurgling  noise.  The  road  continued 
to  wind  lazily  in  and  out.  Here  a  crumbled  log  lay  across  the 
path,  covered  with  lichens,  and  the  glossy  foliage  of  the  winter- 
green.  I  rounded  another  bend,  and  stopped  and  listened. 
Faintly,  as  if  from  very  far  off,  I  heard  the  murmur  of  water, 
and  followed  the  road  to  a  little  brook.  It  was  not  very  broad, 
but  the  water  was  clear,  swift,  and  extremely  cold.  I  watched 
a  tiny  brook-trout  dash  across  the  stream  under  a  little  clump 
of  the  moss  and  ferns  that  fringed  the  bank.  Over  the  brook 
was  a  half-decayed  bridge  of  moss-covered  logs,  made  many 
years  ago  by  the  lumbermen.  I  ventured  across  carefully  and 
looked  about  me.  Here  the  road  lost  itself  in  a  wilderness  of 
charred  stumps  and  cat-tails,  so  I  recrossed  the  bridge  and 
turned  my  steps  homeward,  meditating  upon  the  time  when 
the  road  had  been  filled  with  dust,  and  the  clamor  and  noise  of 
commerce — when  heavy  wagons,  laden  with  vast  logs,  had 
rumbled  over  it  unceasingly.  After  all,  its  best  days  were 
now,  not  then. 

The  Coming  of  a  Storm 

There  were  numerous  signs  of  a  coming  storm.    The  air  was 
sultry  and  still.     Great  banks  of  ominous-looking  clouds  were 


394  COiMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

quickly  gathering  overhead  and  throwing  a  vast  shadow  over 
everything.  Chickens  and  birds  were  preparing  for  a  rest,  mis- 
taking the  darkness  for  night.  Crows  and  rain-birds  were 
circling  through  the  rain-laden  air,  uttering  their  melancholy* 
forecasts  of  the  weather.  Dogs  and  other  pets  crept  into  their 
respective  homes,  afraid.  The  few  early  flowers  visible  opened 
their  petals  to  welcome  the  rain.  As  the  clouds  grew  darker, 
the  wind  rose,  shrieking  through  the  tree  tops,  sweeping  dust 
and  small  articles  before  it.  Great  drops  began  to  fall.  The 
low  rumble  of  thunder  in  the  distance  grew  gradually  louder, 
until  it  sounded  like  the  cannon  on  a  battlefield.  Sharp  flashes 
of  lightning  shot  through  the  heavens,  lighting  the  earth  with 
a  grewsome,  dusky  light.  Everywhere  were  people  scurrying 
for  shelter,  out  of  the  way  of  the  impending  danger,  fearful 
lest  they  be  caught  and  drenched. 

EXERCISES 

I.    Describe  orally  the  picture  suggested  by  one  of  the  fol- 
lowing  titles: 


1. 

An  Old  Miser 

17. 

A  Second-hand  Store 

2. 

Our  Washerwoman 

18. 

A  Greenhouse 

3. 

A  Ward  Politician 

19. 

A  Bird  Store 

4. 

Election  Morning 

20. 

The  City  Library 

5. 

A  Pullman  Car 

21. 

Threshing  Wheat 

6. 

Our  Attic 

22. 

A  Barn  Raising 

7. 

A  Character  in  Our  Village 

23. 

The  Scene  at  the  Boat  Race 

8. 

The  Policeman  on  Our  Street 

24. 

A  Kindergarten  Room 

9. 

Our  Back  Yard 

25. 

A  Cornfield  in  November 

10. 

A  Country  Doctor 

26. 

A  Harvest  Scene 

11. 

Circus  Crowds 

27. 

The  Automobile  Parade 

12. 

A  Skating  Rink 

28. 

The  Factory 

13. 

A  Beautiful  Park 

29. 

A  Country  Church 

14. 

The  Old  Mill 

30. 

Eastor  Decoration 

in. 

Our  Garden 

31. 

My  Room 

in. 

Our  Suiniiicr  TTome 

32. 

A  Mountaineer 

ORAL    COMPOSITION  395 

II.  Qome  to  class  j^repared  to  explain  one  of  the  following 
topics : 

1.  How  to  Kun  an  Automobile. 

2.  How  to  Take  Care  of  Goldfish. 

3.  How  I  Plan  My  Week's  Work. 

4.  The  Care  of  au  Incubator. 

5.  The  Ideal  Student. 

6.  What  is  Expected  of  a  Minister's  Daughter. 

7.  Cleaning  Hard-wood  Floors. 

8.  An  Experiment  in  Chemistry. 

9.  An  Experiment  in  Physics. 

10.  The  Touch- Method  in  Tyi^ewriting. 

11.  The  Care  of  a  Horse. 

12.  How  to  Keep  a  Cash  Account. 

13.  Systematic  Housekeeping. 

III.  Coyne  to  class  prepared  to  defend  one  side  or  the 
other  of  the  following  propositions : 

1.  Lady  Macbeth  deserves  less  sympathy  than  Macbeth. 

2.  Athletics,  as  at  present  conducted  in  our  high  school, 
accomplishes  more  good  than  harm. 

3.  Greek  should  be  offered  as  an  elective  in  our  high  school. 

4.  Public  libraries  and  museums  should  be  open  on  Sundays. 

5.  Vivisection  should  be  prohibited  by  law. 

6.  The  honor  system  should  be  adopted  by  our  school. 

7.  Brutns's  motive  in  assassinating  Julius  Caesar  was  per- 
sonal ambition. 

8.  The  study  of  Latin  is  of  more  general  benefit  than  the 
study  of  German. 

SUMMARY 

Inasmuch  as  every  pupil  has  daily  opportunity  to  culti- 
vate his  power  in  oral  composition,  the  work  should  demand 
his  most  careful  attention.  When  a  history  lesson  is  to 
be  recited,  when  a  story  is  to  be  reproduced,  a  chemistry 


396  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

experiment  explained,  a  class  policy  defended, —  it  is  the 
duty  of  the  pupil  to  express  himself  in  the  most  effective 
oral  English.  In  this  laudable  endeavor  he  will  give  due 
attention  to  his  vocabulary,  to  his  sentence  structure,  and 
to  the  proper  selection  and  arrangement  of  material.  In  a 
word,  he  will  try  to  make  his  oral  English  correct  and 
effective. 


CHAPTEE   IX 
THEME   CORRECTING 

Theme  correcting  is  generally  viewed  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  teaclier,  yet  it  is  clearly  worth  while 
carefully  to  view  it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  pupil,  in 
whose  interest  all  corrections  are  made.  This  second 
point  of  view  is  all  the  more  important,  because  no  person 
can  hope  to  be  a  really  effective  writer  until  he  has  learned 
to  be  a  severe  critic  of  his  own  work.  To  the  selection  of 
his  materials,  to  the  orderly  sequence  of  his  ideas,  and 
to  the  correctness  and  attractiveness  of  his  style, —  to  all 
these  essentials  of  good  writing,  the  student  must  learn  to 
give  his  severe,  intelligent  self-criticism.  INIoreover,  the 
careful  and  unbiased  criticism  which  he  is  encouraged  to 
give  to  the  theme  of  his  fellow-pupils  will  make  him  more 
alert  for  the  excellencies  and  defects  of  all  writing  which 
he  examines,  —  his  own,  that  of  his  mates,  and  that  of  other 
writers  ;  for  the  genuinely  critical  spirit  is  just  as  sensitive 
to  virtues  as  it  is  to  faults.  Practice  in  criticism  will 
accordingly  develop  a  pupil's  appreciation  of  good  litera- 
ture, and  will  direct  toward  efficient  theme  writing. 

How  older  and  practiced  writers  feel  the  need  of  self- 
criticism  is  strongly  expressed  by  Cardinal  Newman  in 
one  of  his  letters. 

"  It  is  simply  a  fact,"  he  writes,  "  that  I  have  been 
obliged  to  take  great  pains  with  everything  I  have  written, 
and  1  often  write  chapters  over  and  over  again,  besides 

397 


398  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

innumerable  corrections  and  interleaved  additions.  I  am 
not  stating  this  as  a  merit,  only  that  some  persons  write 
their  best  first,  and  I  very  seldom  do.  Tliose  who  are 
good  speakers  may  be  supposed  to  be  able  to  write  off 
what  they  want  to  say.  I,  who  am  not  a  good  speaker, 
have  to  correct  laboriously  what  I  put  on  paper.  How- 
ever, I  may  truly  say  that  I  never  have  been  in  practice, 
since  I  was  a  boy,  of  attempting  to  write  well,  or  to  form 
an  elegant  style.  I  think  I  never  have  written  for 
writing's  sake ;  but  my  one  and  single  desire  and  aim  has 
been  to  do  what  is  so  diflicult,  viz.  to  express  clearly  and 
exactly  my  meaning:  this  has  been  the  motive  principle 
of  all  my  corrections  and  rewritings.  When  I  have  read 
over  a  passage  which  I  had  Avritten  a  few  days  before,  I 
have  found  it  so  obscure  to  myself  tliat  1  have  eitlier  put 
it  -altogether  aside,  or  fiercely  corrected  it ;  for  I  don't  get 
any  better  for  practice.  I  am  as  much  obliged  to  correct 
and  rewrite  as  I  was  thirty  years  ago." 

The  pupil  critic  who  takes  up  a  particular  theme  for 
correction,  will  naturally  notice  first  its  mechanical  fea- 
tures. If  the  paper  is  not  uniform  with  that  used  by  the 
other  members  of  the  class,  the  fact  should  be  noted. 
Careless  handwriting,  blotclies,  colored  or  faded  ink,  in- 
attention either  to  the  I'ight-hahd  or  to  the  left-hand  mar- 
gins,—  eacli  of  these  defects  the  critic  will  point  out. 

Having  made  his  comments  on  these  purely  mechanical 
points,  the  critic  will  carefully  read  through  the  entire 
theme  in  order  to  catch  the  effect  as  a  whole.  Such  an 
effect  the  reader  may  be  able  to  characterize  by  some  such 
adjectives  as,  "original,"  "interesting,"  "forceful," 
"  clever,"  "  graphic,"  "  pointless,"  "  unconvincing,"  "  com- 
monplace," or  "wordy."  Or  perliaps  tlie  corrector  can 
tliink  of    no  single  word  which  sums   up  his  impressions, 


THEME  CORRECTING  399 

and  he  sets  down  some  such  phrase  as,  "  Hackneyed  phras- 
ing "  ;  "  Original  in  thought  and  phrasing  "  ;  "•  Good  in 
substance,  but  poor  in  form  "  ;  "  Strong  in  the  beginning, 
but  weak  at  the  end "  ;  "  There  is  an  evident  striving 
after  effect."  Now  these  identical  comments  will  perhaps 
suggest  to  the  critic  a  way  of  indicating  his  varied  im- 
pressions. The  design  of  the  method  is  to  enable  the 
student  to  set  down,  in  exact  phrasing,  his  appreciation  of 
the  theme  as  a  whole. 

In  addition  to  recording  his  general  impression,  the 
pupil  critic  should  test  the  whole  composition,  each  para- 
graph and  each  sentence,  by  the  three  principles  of  unity, 
coherence,  and  emphasis.  If  the  composition  anywhere 
reveals  a  faulty  selection  of  details  which  makes  the  work 
ununified,  the  critic  will  point  out  the  items  which  have 
been  wrongly  inserted.  When  the  offense  is  against  co- 
herence, the  critic  will  suggest  the  changes  that  will  make 
the  connection  of  ideas  close  and  the  relationship  of  parts 
unmistakable.  In  cases  where  unimportant  items  have 
been  placed  in  positions  of  prominence  or  have  been  ac- 
corded space  unproportioned  to  their  worth,  the  critic  will 
point  out  the  specific  items,  and  thus  show  that  an  oft'ense 
has  been  committed  against  empliasis. 

The  foregoing  paragraphs  deal  with  the  larger  questions 
of  theme  correcting.  Along  with  these  there  is,  of  course, 
the  constant  need  of  watchfulness  in  important  details, 
such  as  spelling,  grammar,  punctuation,  vocabulary,  inden- 
tion, and  the  scores  of  items  that  distinguish  careful  writ- 
ing from  careless  writing.  Some  of  these  items  will,  of 
course,  escape  the  critic,  but  the  practice  of  watchfulness 
will  make  his  faculties  more  alert,  and  the  developed  alert- 
ness will  reflect  itself  in  his  own  subsequent  writing. 

As  a  further  aid  in  tlie  practice  of  correcting  themes, 


400  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

the  pupil  may  perhaps  find  it  helpful  to  refer  to  the  follow- 
ing list  of  specific  questions  and  directions  which  are  im- 
plied in  the  preceding  discussion: 

1.  Note  the  mechanical  defects  and  excellences. 

2.  Read  the  composition  through. 

3.  Keep  your  eye  open  to  the  good  as  well  as  to  tlie  bad. 

4.  Can  you  summarize  your  general  impression  by  a 
single  adjective  or  by  a  short  phrase  ? 

5.  Are  there  too  many  or  too  few  paragraphs  ? 

6.  Is    unity,    coherence,  or  emphasis  viohitcd    in    tlie 
whole  composition,  in  any  paragraph,  or  in  any  sentence  ? 

7.  Do  you  find  gronps  of  sentences  so  short  that  they 
suggest  a  choppy  effect? 

8.  Would  any  of  the  long  sentences  be  improved  by 
splitting  them  into  parts  ? 

9.  Are  any  of  the  sentences  so  bad  that  they  can  be 
corrected  only  by  entire  reconstruction  ? 

10.  If  there  are  any  bad  sentences,  suggest  ways  of 
improving  them. 

11.  Indicate  one  or  two  sentences  tliat  seem  to  you 
particularly  well  constructed. 

12.  Are  there  any  errors  in  grammar?  Be  watchful  of 
compound  subjects  and  their  verb  agreements. 

13.  Discourage  the  use  of  the  nominative  absolute  con- 
struction, the  split  infinitive,  and  the  historical  present 
tense. 

14.  Are  there  any  errors  in  spelling  or  in  punctuation? 

15.  Indicate  the  words  that  are  aptly  used. 

16.  Do  the  words  used  produce  a  graphic  effect? 

17.  Does  the  writer  seem  to  have  an  adequate  vocabu- 
lary ?     Has  he  used  any  word  of  doubtful  propriety  ? 

18.  Use  the  foHowing  marks  to  designate  the  specified 
errors: 


THEME   CORRECrriNG  401 

jijit,  —  Directs  attention  to  a  pronoun  not  in  agreement  with 
its  antecedent. 

Ccqy.  —  Use  a  capital  letter. 

Wo  Cap.  —  Do  not  use  a  capital  letter. 

CI.  —  Lack  of  clearness  in  thought  or  in  expression. 

Concl.  —  Condense. 

07\  —  Error  in  grammar. 

K.  —  Awkward  expression. 

1[.  — A  new  paragraph. 

JVb  H.  — Xo  paragraph. 

p.  —  Punctuation  at  fault. 

E.  —  Unnecessary  repetition  of  thought  or  expression. 

Red.  —  Redundant  expression. 

S.  —  Faulty  sentence  structure. 

sj).  —  Word  mispelled. 

?.  —  Error  not  specified. 

Now  that  we  have  discussed  in  a  somewhat  detailed 
way  the  office  and  duties  of  the  critic,  we  may  find  it 
profitable  to  see  how  this  works  out  in  practice.  Let  us 
read  the  following  representative  themes  of  high  school 
pupils  and  note  in  what  particulars  the  compositions  are 
good  or  bad.  In  making  the  comments  we  shall  constantly 
try  to  remember  that  criticism,  according  to  Matthew 
Arnold,  is  a  disinterested  endeavor  to  see  a  thing  as  in  it- 
self it  really  is.  In  our  office  of  critic  we  shall  try  to  be 
equally  alert  in  seeing  good  and  bad  points.  We  shall 
try  to  remember,  too,  that  good  criticism  implies  construc- 
tive criticism  ;  we  shall  not  be  content  to  point  out  the 
bad,  but  we  shall  sometimes  suggest  a  method  of  revision. 


2d 


402  COMPOSTTIOX    AND    RITETOKIC 


OyxM^,  xl^AY^^^  J^  'ViAM^  /WAAJiAALjJi!x 


CAittyn^  ^ 'i^yn-  jl        Q        L    L-f-  U 


THEME  CORRECTING 


403 


3'jiJlyUJUCUxAX'  i<^J^o7- 

JunxL  lo^  a.  Iuj^ 

Iajl^  JvubnTtAjUixL  junrthjllntarritd 

^^  Ajycbmrv  aJhO<JLrnAj^  AllAjnrwoditluM 

,  JLA  JuyAUL  GyncL  UOiM  TYhCUU  AIaJ^ 

4tzM^Miyu.  cuAJuULkjul  XjwJb  1  ruJuUl  Oucc/yrrL- 
AuAJuHi:  JriLuihjucL  m/u  au-uj^t^  Mybl  Jkmjyuj 
m)  A/ ''^   I  oi  rru>U\Lnno,  XJioX  Jixi^  jlaxjolKlcL 
^5>Y     \  nrriAL  ixxJUtAyryOb 
rv^   ^/        \  ^^^^-^'^^<xJ^  rrvoZ  St  AjJJJinriaJu/rji^ 
'^^^J^jujM  JuyuJjynn  IHljIlUjjv.  x  c/yuloL  AilaJjb 

AXJCAjbd  ol  )JT\ALhJUJUurm 

ol^  CL  AjujuJX  cd  rrrvu 


404  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 


Xx/yrua^  AJuX  Uxxaju  Jla  aajuuL  cyruL 
jJ-uxL  1  jujxa]-u  tcy  XllL  -Luyiji.  oltruJ^. 

/CU  cJ-uuAjcJ^. 

JOAAnxh>  Oot-  ^L  Ui  <x  CoJjxohx,  cJumultv^  cnr- 

Ltd  <iAjuxL  (xrrJbuUJjLlyLy,  Jl  JimJjLhjAj 
jlL  xxaJJi-  xdu  huiXjuruy  (xhjurv  IxyounJt: 

A}yuxXyCtAA^^-     XxJLhJXA^  luCrCrTYV^  AXxXhuUu  Jr-Jbcmrrv 

xjj-olIIa   uLhtAJL  Jn/ykjyrv  AJuaAjJUudjuL 
XAJiAJrv  A/rrhoJLl  AJJiyrvoLcrLu^.  AX>nnx, « 

CUAMtiA/txA>tJi ^jkji/yjj^oJhj  Juj-thicJx,  AjbujoumruicL  JJvl 


/-a 


/OA  .  Lhl^  A^rnJjLAAXyu.     CU  i    XMToJLhjLcL 

djui^  A-  '»****'    T^hjL  yJicr<y\/  l/CLrruoi  AJruyrx/  Jf    romjuju' 


THEME  CORRECTING 


405 


CLTOJiij  jjurdihy  Xx/rrx^ ~  juynjcyuuL  (LLxJi - 
JCxyyiTL^^   x-U-lJuL^  AJLAJiunrxjOL.  Uruu  AjymOMnA 

ill    UJ-CL/3    A^OUUUL/L  JaxaXj  Ou  hAXXX^ 

Oubryu^  Uub  mjojun.  LLcycyo,  cundi  umM 
AJJSi^nrruyUurJjuiy  hxJL  Ob  A/t/XJjuUAuM  CAJjc- 
cjuLinc.  GbiJuxmqJuyi  oJj-crLxX  XJvu  AJUmyrxL 

yCLmjAj^  Jbxjyrrh  inAjyirruutjO<j^  mJ/xxjul 

rboXco-rv  ■  J/ru  djjJ^  -ruuchj^  uyrv  JJuy 
-LLroMd,  CjjlL  JJvlaju  JxyoJju^  jhuJv 
JrucyAJL^  ruo-^Jyju  AXxx/ruybumx^  rvuinrrujir 

oi  Jjrw  IJxAM/i/rv  TVCoLAyu,^  /xrnx^tJ'iJiAj, 
m  IJzL  /oJiAMdZ.  CcLcJv  AJLriAJLAJyriLuL 
Ou  Mtlnx/Lol  (iJijoUxjoucJjJh. 

OJjjUu  i  JrULcL  cycLOtxL  at  y^nyu 


ura4  ii>  Jiif^ 


Cvfv 


406  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 


yi  uJiy'r/nAyruLuinn/)  /jynJjJy  JJiMu  roouoL 
AJt/Lxyrruu  uyruJuLlxlH/Li  AyrrJxAjLA^dJuL 
JULfurru  rryyu,  /nrriJurYi/y\ju,  ^  H  AXoAtuL 

(lajyrvu  jTuouf. 

"^Ajb  P&lnrJy  cd  iXdUV 

OLyrx/tJu  xJ^<>t7t^  /7n^iy<yyrixniJxzAjJyu^  xiAfc^- 
AjAjLcC  Jru.    iJu^  Jiy<yiyciv,  yCo^xi^  JvJt^ 

An^ouAjy^n/o,  cCou/ro  y6Zi.cocLA,£yv4^  cut^xoL 


■K^/ 


//( <'^- 


^Sy   J'  IDa/cI^ /tj^CH^axZ  yCUct>?*AAMy 


nj^QUyOX^  ■ 


THEME  CORRECTING  407 


CuJzjtyci. 

ayrxycl  A^tLo  ^(iJx^aJy  ^/i^  XyOtxA  .Ji^^ooou- 
Xyrvo  OTJtAy  J-hCd  ^Au^<XyoC    CO  'J-njJI^aAy 

'  aJj  xxJ  M\4^h^.  ^(Tyriu^  Jo-Ui^  olycrnt/ 

,  I)  I  a  ,  V  / 

hyOi/nJj  en  nni^urxxmu-AzAy^^rriyCLAj^Acrrii 

: . r„ T.y^  A **i thvuCbcC.  WmjJ/oL  tAaJ? (xM- xxj<AJ^ cl6 
Ji^aJiJ-i^a^  cnxAy  XcZtlfy  .AjtAx?:  TdxAxt' 


jit  aiLe,-r\jLi  a^io*^ 


408 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


.     JhJb.**AJL  Iff 


"oJLaMaj/O'k 


e£^uuU 


clcd- 


yt^  . 


//?rl^7iA^^  c<u<>nl^^{.l J^c^u^a^id^J:^ <:^7^^;>z^ 
,aJia<iM<f  pyiM^Upz^  jJuJidMt^  a^nCin^^^icL 


THEME  CORRECTING  409 


Sc<KAe^Z(^/2/ie/2/-&7iL  Jtuzde^  A/^ttz'  ipi^i^ 


410  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

EXERCISE 

Criticise  the  following  themes  according  to  the  method  sug- 
gested  and  illustrated  in  the  preceding  pages : 

Why  Botany  is  Intekesting 

I  have  never  heard  any  one  who  lias  taken  botany  say  that 
he  ov  she  did.  not  like  it,  or  that  it  was  not  interesting.  One 
reason,  I  think,  is  because  we  learn  how  plants  live,  —  breath- 
ing, developing,  and  possessing  some  characteristics  and  senses 
that  persons  poss.ess,  adapting  themselves  to  new  surroundings 
and  shunning  that  which  is  not  agreeable,  thriving  under  certain 
favorable  conditions  and  perishing  under  others.  We  learn  of 
the  different  phases  in  the  lives  of  plants  from  the  smallest  to 
the  largest  kinds  that  grow,  and  we  learn  what  plants  are  use- 
ful and  what  are  harmful  and  why.  But  the  chief  interest  to 
me,  in  the  study  of  plant  life,  lies  in  the  fact  that  a  careful 
study  enables  us  to  become  acquainted  with  the  different  ones 
and  to  know  their  characteristics. 

Why  Axciext  Histoky  is  Ixterestixg 

One  of  the  numerous  studies  taught  in  the  high  schools, 
which  has  always  seemed  very  interesting  and  beneficial  to  me, 
is  ancient  history.  This  certain  study  deals  with  human  life, 
interests,  and  customs  more  than  any  other.  Some  people 
have  a  peculiar  notion  that,  because  the  people  and  customs  of 
ancient  countries  are  treated  in  ancient  history,  this  history  is 
dull.  Think  how  much  more  modern  home  building,  architec- 
ture, and  science  would  be  appreciated  if  only  a  general  knowl- 
edge of  ancient  architecture  and  science  were  prevalent.  His- 
tory is  a  sure  means  of  connecting  the  past  and  the  distant  with 
the  present  and  the  now.  This  is  the  first  reason  why  I  consider 
the  study  of  ancient  history  interesting.  What  could  be  more 
interesting  than  a  study  of  human  character;  this  is  also  found 
in  ancient  history.  Think  of  that  old  philosopher  who  went 
wandering  through  the  streets  with  a  lantern  in  his  hand  at 


THEME  CORRECTING  411 

high  noon,  all  the  while  saying,  "  I  am  in  search  of  a  true  man." 
There  was  some  high  ambition  or  unnsual  conception  of  an  ideal 
person  lurking  in  this  old  philosopher's  soul.  AVhen  a  person 
is  thoroughly  acquainted  with  the  peculiarities  and  oddities  of 
the  ancient  peoples,  he  is  better  prepared  for  a  study  of  the 
human  character  of  the  twentieth  century.  This  is  the  second 
great  reason  why  history  is  interesting.  ISTow  when  these  two 
reasons,  namely,  the  study  of  ancient  life  and  customs  together 
with  the  portrayal  of  human  character,  are  combined,  it  seems 
as  if  ancient  history  is  certainly  an  interesting  subject  and 
should  be  appreciated  by  all. 

PuKPOSE  OF  Forest  Reservations 

Much  has  been  said  concerning  the  growing  tendency  of  the 
national  government  to  monopolize  vast  tracts  of  forest  land 
in  the  West,  especially  at  the  foothills  of  the  Eockies.  The 
purpose  of  this  seemingly  promiscuous  purchase  of  land  on  the 
part  of  the  government  is  not  generally  known.  The  national 
government,  like  the  various  municipal  systems,  is  constantly 
endeavoring  to  aid  the  individual  to  overcome  geographical 
conditions.  In  certain  arid  portions  of  the  country  it  is  well- 
nigh  impossible  to  carry  on  irrigation  Avithout  a  perennial  sup- 
ply of  water.  All  of  the  great  rivers  which  thread  the  western 
half  of  the  Mississippi  Valley  have  their  sources  in  the  Rocky 
Mountains.  In  an  effort  to  make  these  sources  permanent  and 
to  keep  the  water  supply  on  an  equality  at  all  seasons  of  the 
year,  the  government  has  begun  to  protect  and  preserve  the 
forests  in  this  region,  which,  of  course,  retain  a  sufficient,  sup- 
ply of  moisture  to  facilitate  the  desired  conditions. 

Basket-ball 

Of  all  games,  basket-ball  is  my  favorite,  both  from  a  spec- 
tator's point  of  view  and  from  that  of  a  player  ;  for  it  seems  to 
me  that  it  develops  one's  body  more  perfectly  and  thoroughly 
than  any  other  game,  and  at  the  same  time  brings  more  pleas- 


412  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

lire.  It  is  played  between  two  teams  of  five  men  each,  and 
eacli  side  tries  to  throw  the  ball  into  their  respective  basket, 
a  net  hung  upon  an  iron  hoop  on  the  wall  at  each  end  of  the 
floor.  Each  team  has  two  forwards,  two  guards,  and  a  center. 
The  centers  of  the  respective  teams  jump  for  the  ball  at  the 
center  of  the  floor,  and  then  the  forwards  try  to  throw  it  into 
their  goals,  while  the  guards  of  the  opposing  team  try  to  get 
the  ball  to  their  center  or  forwards  and  thence  to  the  basket. 
And  since  there  are  innumerable  trick  plays  in  the  game,  there 
is  always  something  new  for  both  the  player  and  the  spectator. 

The  jMailing  System 

Although  more  than  a  million  letters  are  received  and  sent 
daily,  it  is  not  generally  known  how  they  come  and  go.  First, 
the  letters  are  taken  from  the  boxes  by  the  collectors  and  de- 
livered to  the  post  office.  Here  they  are  put  into  a  canceling 
machine,  which  is  capable  of  stamping  several  hundred  per 
minute.  Then  all  the  letters  of  each  state  are  put  together  and 
given  over  to  the  mailing  clerks,  each  of  whom  has  a  certain 
state.  Each  man  then  distributes  them  according  to  their  respec- 
tive cities  in  the  horseshoe  letter  case ;  each  clerk  has  his  own 
case.  When  the  tie-out  bell  is  rung,  the  letters  for  each  city  are 
tied  together,  put  in  mail  sacks,  carried  to  the  depot,  and 
placed  on  the  train  which  is  to  carry  this  lot  of  mail.  Next 
,  we  find  the  sacks  being  tlirown  off  at  the  proper  city  stations. 
In  the  smaller  towns  the  mail  is  taken  on  and  throwai  without 
the  train's  slacking  speed.  They  are  now  taken  to  the  office 
and  divided  among  the  carriers  according  to  their  city  districts. 
Then  the  carrier  delivers.  In  the  small  towns,  the  inhabitants 
must  call  for  their  own  mail.  This  is,  in  brief,  the  system 
through  which  the  ordinary  letter  must  pass. 

The  Art  of  a  Nation 

The  art  of  a  nation  is  generally  thought  to  mean  the  accom- 
plishment of  a  few  renowned  artists  and  never  the  art  of  a 


THEME   CORRECTING  413 

people.  When  we  say  the  Italians  are  artistic,  we  immediately 
think  of  their  old  famous  masters  such  as  Michael  Angelo  and 
Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  not  of  their  people.  But  the  art  of  a 
nation,  such  as  Japan,  gives  us  the  general  art  level  of  a  people 
and  the  cooperation  of  a  whole  race  to  create  beauty,  not  only 
in  expensive  objects,  suitable  to  exhibit  in  art  museums  alone, 
but  in  the  useful  and  common  objects  of  everyday  life.  The 
Japanese  does  not  stop  with  utility ;  for  nothing  but  beauty 
will  suffice  for  this  art-loving  people.  A  Japanese  cannot  see 
a  blank  surface  without  desiring  to  design  something  on  it,  no 
matter  how  small;  just  so  it  is  pleasing  to  the  eye  and  affords 
him  j)leasure.  In  Japan  even  grain  or  potato  sacks  are  deco- 
rated. This  artistic  instinct  has  been  carried  into  their  dress, 
home,  and  surroundings.  Two,  three,  four,  even  eight-sided 
rice  fields  can  be  found  in  Japan  simply  because  they  are  more 
pleasing  than  if  they  were  all  uniform.  A  Japanese  servant, 
any  servant,  even  in  a  hotel,  will  set  your  toilet  articles  on  the 
dressing  table  to  make  a  design,  and  the  tea  tables  in  the  hum- 
blest homes  are  arranged  so  as  to  make  a  picture.  So  it  ap- 
pears to  me  that  the  art  of  a  nation  is  far  greater  even  than  the 
art  of  a. few  immortals  who  happen  to  be  citizens  thereof,  be- 
cause it  affects  greater  numbers. 


An  Expository  Paragraph 

Why  is  it  that  one  rejoices  to  see  the  sun  rise  earlier  and  set 
later  ?  I  know  why  I  like  to  note  a  little  lengthening  of  the 
daylight  in  the  afternoon  and  a  slight  northward  creep  of  the 
sun  in  the  morning.  It  is  because  each  one  of  these  lengthen- 
ings and  northward  creepings  brings  springtime  a  little  nearer. 
How  I  regret  to  notice  a  slight  shortening  of  daylight  in  the 
fall  of  the  year,  and  how  impatiently  await  the  shortest  day  so 
that  I  may  watch  the  return  of  the  sun  after  its  turning  point 
has  been  reached.  It  takes  some  time  before  the  actual  results 
of  this  return  can  be  seen  and  felt:  but  after  the  sun  has  worked 


414  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

its  way  north  for  two  months,  we  realize  how  swiftly  the  days 
are  growing  longer.  I  love  to  see  the  days  grow  longer  and 
the  nights  shorter,  because  it  makes  me  feel  that  there  is  more 
to  a  (lay,  not  a  mere  Hash,  but  an  actual  day  in  which  I  can 
enjoy  more  than  in  the  few  hours  that  follow  dawn  and  precede 
twilight  in  winter.  And  then  the  joys  that  come  with  the 
longer  warmer  day,  that  cannot  be  had  in  the  shorter  colder  day, 
make  me  long  ardently  for  spring. 

Why  we  should  Know  Some  Botany  to  Appreciate 
Milton  and  Shakspere 

In  order  that  we  may  really  appreciate  the  writings  of  Mil- 
ton and  Shakspere,  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  know  some 
botany.  I  don't  mean  a  knowledge  of  scientific  facts  or  names 
especially,  but  rather  the  power  to  recognize  all  of  the  simpler 
plants  and  call  them  by  their  common  names.  In  reading  these 
great  authors,  numberless  beautiful  nature  descriptions  are 
found,  and  many  of  them  are  valueless  to  us,  because  we  haven't 
the  knowledge  to  understand  them.  In  Lycidas  the  beautiful 
lines  that  start. 

Bring  the  rathe  primrose  that  forsaken  dies, 
The  tufted  crow-toe,  and  pale  jessamine,  etc., 

are  only  a  group  of  beautiful  words,  half  meaningless,  unless  a 
vivid  picture  of  each  named  flower  comes  to  our  minds.  All 
Milton  mentions  are  simple  flowers  that  we  should  easily  recog- 
nize. To  appreciate  some  of  Shakspere's  nature  pictures,  we 
must  be  able  to  distinguish  some  of  the  trees.  He  is  ever  using 
figures  that  refer  to  the  various  trees,  the  oak  and  the  willow 
are  especially  mentioned.  AVe  fail  to  grasp  some  of  the  plays  on 
words  that  Shakspere  makes,  if  we  are  lacking  in  nature 
lore.  To  read  and  fully  appreciate  ^Milton  and  Shakspere, 
one  should  be  a  close  and  observant  student  of  all  out  of  doors, 
but  especially  noting  the  trees  and  flowers. 


THEME  CORRECTING  415 


Freedom  of  Children 


Did  you  ever  stop  to  tliink  that  the  children  want  to  be  left 
entirely  alone  once  in  a  while  ?  If  you  can  get  a  child  to  tell 
you  its  inmost  wish,  it  will  be  sure  to  want  at  some  time  in  its 
life  to  get  away  from  those  who  have  authority  over  it  and 
do  something  which  seems  to  us  very  simple  and  unordinary. 
Some  parents  do  not  let  their  little  folk  feel  that  they  can  really 
do  anything  essential  to  themselves  or  others  without  aid  from 
some  older  person.  Parents  are  always  watching  the  acts  and 
listening  to  the  conversation  of  the  children,  and  in  this  way 
interfering  with  the  freedom  of  its  mind.  Poor  children  who 
are  made  to  do  things  for  themselves  and  others  have  often 
given  proof  to  the  fact  that  they  can  think  clearly  and  concisely 
without  aid.  The  boy  that  finds  he  can  get  away  from  his 
elders,  will  take  the  chance  and  do  some  little  age-old  bit  of  ad- 
venture and  think  he  is  doing  something  no  one  else  ever  did. 
Therefore,  let  the  children  have  more  freedom  and  let's  see 
what  they  will  do. 

The  Child  and  the  Story 

"  Well,  what  shall  it  be  ?  "  I  asked  my  little  brother  upon 
his  requesting  me  to  "  please  read  "  him  a  story.  And  when 
he  replied  by  naming  the  story  which  I  had  read  to  him  not 
less  than  twenty  times,  I  began  to  wonder  why  he  always 
wanted  to  hear  that  story  reread  before  he  would  be  willing  to 
tune  his  ears  to  a  new  narrative.  While  I  know  that  at  the 
more  mature  age,  one  often  gives  as  his  reason  for  reading 
a  story  again  that  he  wishes  to  enjoy  the  diction,  plan,  and 
vahiable  descriptions  which  one  will  unconsciously  slight  dur- 
ing the  first  reading,  yet  the  child  certainly  considers  not 
these  things.  He  is  wholly  wrapped  up  in  the  progress  of  the 
action  in  the  story.  Nor  does  the  intense  interest  —  anxiety  as 
to  the  outcome,  I  might  say  —  seem  to  be  dulled  by  any  number 


416  COMPOSITIOX   AND   RHETORIC 

of  readings  of  the  story,  but  rather  to  be  sharpened.  And  why- 
is  this  ?  Why  will  the  child  invariably  prompt  you  by  saying, 
"  Go  on,"  if  you  pause  too  long  to  take  a  breath  or  to  change 
your  position,  when  he  well  knows  the  next  sentence,  almost 
to  the  word  ?  Probably  this  attitude  shown  is  due  to  an 
innate  conception  of  the  uncertainty  of  life.  For  I  believe 
the  child  actually  entertains  some  doubt  each  time  whether 
that  soldier  will  be  hung  or  not;  whether  the  huge  dog 
will  safely  bear  the  princess  to  the  garret  and  back  to  her 
palace.  Moreover,  the  child  thinks  of  the  story  as  true  and 
actually  taking  place,  and  he  fears  that  something  may  happen 
to  prevent  the  termination  he  expects.  The  child  likes  to 
see  justice  dealt  in  the  story ;  to  see  the  deserving  rewarded. 
He  likes  to  see  the  knight  triumph,  and  is  disgusted  with 
apparent  gain  made  by  a  wrongdoer.  In  much  the  same 
manner  as  the  child  views  the  story  —  "  the  interpretation  of 
the  problems  of  human  existence  "  —  does  man  see  life. 

"The   Old  Curiosity  Shop" 

I  have  just  read  Tlie  Old  Curiosity  Shop.  How  delight- 
fully fascinating  it  is,  with  its  quaint  characters,  portrayed  in 
Dickens's  usual  style,  its  quiet,  genuine  humor,  and  its  pathos. 
I  read  the  book  with  real  pleasure,  because  it  was  interesting, 
and  that  cannot  always  be  said  of  books  ranked  as  standard 
literature.  I  felt  a  common  tie  with  Nell  and  her  grandfather 
as  they  pursued  their  wanderings  day  after  day,  encountering 
toil  and  hardship,  knowing  not  whither  they  were  bound,  only 
hoping  to  put  distance  between  them  and  that  demon  dwarf, 
Quilp. 

Dickens's  characters  are  seldom  commonplace.  They  are  usu- 
ally exaggerated,  but  with  a  consummate  skill.  The  names  he 
gives  them  are  also  peculiar  to  his  style  of  writing  and  usually 
sound  most  unmusical,  nay,  often  grotesque.  However,  they 
serve  their  purpose  always ;  they  act  their  parts  naturally  and 
well.     There  was  a  time  about  four  years  ago  when  I  could  not 


THEME  CORRECTING  417 

honestly  say  that  I  liked  Dickens.  Now  my  taste  has  changed 
and  I  consider  it  a  pleasure,  not  a  task,  to  read  even  his  longest 
book. 

It  is  said  that  Dickens  worked  himself  so  deeply  into  the 
character  of  little  Nell,  came  to  love  her  so  sincerely,  fictitious 
as  she  was,  that  he  was  overcome  with  grief  when  the  time  came 
to  have  her  die.  It  is  furthermore  said  that  he  found  himself 
incapable  of  work  for  a  whole  week  following  her  demise.  One 
is  brought  into  the  spirit  of  it  all  so  deeply  that  one  also  grieves 
when  she  dies. 

I  have  so  often  thought  that  Dickens,  in  writing  a  book,  sim- 
ply went  ahead  without  bothering  himself  with  plot,  working 
in  his  numerous  characters  as  the  story  progressed,  retaining 
some  for  future  use,  dropping  others  after  a  chapter  or  two. 
I  am  nearly  certain  that  I  could  recognize  a  paragraph  of 
Dickens's  writing  wherever  I  saw  it  on  account  of  its  wonderful 
individuality. 

The  Advantages  of  Keeping  a  Diary 

The  person  that  has  never  kept  a  diary  cannot  fully  realize 
what  he  has  missed  until  he  tries  keeping  one.  Then  he  will 
find  for  himself  that  his  previous  ideas  of  a  diary  were  entirely 
groundless.  He  may  have  thought  of  it  as  being  a  mere  col- 
lection of  loose,  straggling  sentences  of  only  momentary  value. 
But  I  feel  that  if  that  person  will  take  the  little  task  (if  you 
may  call  it  such)  in  a  serious  way,  he  will  find  that  each  day 
he  will  hope  for  something  better  to  put  in  his  secret  record. 
He  wiU  learn  to  make  it  a  part  of  himself ;  and  will  make  it 
show  all  sides  of  his  disposition,  for  he  will  not  only  jot  down 
notes  of  the  moments  when  he  was  in  serious  thought  and  dif- 
ficulty, but  he  will  also  keep  record  of  all  the  jolly  good  times 
he  has  had.  He  will  keep  account  of  his  failures  and  his  tri- 
umphs, of  his  sorrows  and  his  joys.  It  seems  to  me,  however, 
that  quite  as  much  pleasure  is  derived  from  looking  over  his 
diary  for  two  or  three  years  back.     Not  even  this  length  of 

2  E 


418  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

time  is  required;  a  year  or  a  half-year  will  suffice  to  show  how 
a  person  has  advanced  and  in  what  moods  he  has  been.  For 
example,  he  may  notice  how,  about  six  months  ago,  a  grade  of 
100  cj^  on  a  physics  experiment  was  the  vital  point  of  the  day, 
while  the  present  date  shows  that  he  rejoices  at  having  mastered 
the  subject  of  light  reflection.  This  just  illustrates  how  such  a 
list  of  daily  occurrences  can  i)rove  development  of  character,  the 
person  at  first  rejoicing  over  the  reward  of  something  doue,  and 
later  on  realizing  the  real  value  of  the  subject  itself.  IVEore- 
over,  I  believe  that  a  diary  will  help  a  person  broaden  his  im- 
aginative powers.  He  can  amuse  himself  for  hours  in  thinking 
over  all  the  pleasant  hours  he  has  spent.  Just  a  word  or  two 
will  make  his  imagination  take  him  back  to  certain  plans, 
will  make  him-  recall  certain  people,  whom  perhaps  he  never 
would  have  thought  about  again.  His  interest  in  these  people 
will  perhaps  gain  for  him  new  acquaintances,  if  not  steadfast 
friends. 

How  TO  Write  a  Compositiox  for  English 

You  have  to  do  it ;  there  is  no  denying  or  getting  around  that 
fact,  and  you  have  to  do  it  before  to-morrow  morning — another 
fact  more  or  less  harrowing  and  oppressive.  You  sit  around 
with  your  head  in  your  hands  letting  your  thoughts  wander 
over  several  subjects  appropriate  for  anything  but  the  sort  of 
composition  that  is  required.  Soon  your  brain  steals  oft'  into 
other  channels  and  you  laugh  aloud  when  you  think  how  John 
got  called  on  unexpectedly  in  English  and  "flunked,"  or  how 
Jane  was  caught  admiring  herself  in  a  small  pocket  mirror 
instead  of  translating  some  sentences  in  Cicero.  And  so  you 
ramble  aimlessly  through  the  events  of  the  day  until  the  clock 
in  the  hall  strikes  nine,  and  with  a  start  you  realize  that  you 
have  wasted  two  hours.  Well,  that  theme  simply  must  be  wi-it- 
ten.  With  a  determined  grip  of  the  pen  and  set  lips  you  place 
your  "  thinking  cap  "  on  straight,  and  think  painfully  hard  for 
a  minute  or  two.     Why  wouldn't  it  be  appropriate  to  take  a 


THEME  CORRECTING  419 

passage  from  Shakspere  or  Milton,  and  expound  it,  you  think. 
Just  as  you  have  your  pen  pointed  ready  to  launch  forth  on  a 
detailed  explanation  of  Shakspere's  probable  meaning  when 
he  wrote  the  lines,  "To  be,  or  not  to  be,  that  is  the  question," 
or  something  equally  soul-stirring,  you  happen  to  think  of  how 
beautifully  you  squelched  JNIaude  to-day,  and  your  pencil  falls 
hopelessly  to  your  side  as  you  revel  in  your  triumph.  And  so 
it  goes,  until,  when  the  clock  strikes  ten,  you  desperately  set 
yourself  to  work,  and,  half  asleep,  attempt  to  develop  the  ex- 
tremely prosaic  and,  for  you,  singularly  unappropriate  subject 
of  "  How  to  Write  a  Composition  for  English." 

An  Old  Colonial  Clock 

In  the  back  parlor  of  my  friend's  residence  there  stands  an 
old  clock  which  has  time  and  again  excited  my  curiosity,  but 
which  I  did  not  find  opportunity  to  inquire  about  until  the 
other  day.  The  ancient  piece  of  furniture  possesses  a  history 
as  quaint  and  as  antique  as  itself,  but  I  shall  not  attempt  to 
recount  that  until  I  have  given  you  an  idea  of  its  present 
appearance  and  the  effect  which  the  vicissitudes  it  has 
encountered  in  its  long  life  have  had  upon  the  venerable  time- 
piece. 

The  case  is  a  massive  oak  and  stands  six  or  seven  feet  from 
the  floor.  In  more  than  one  place  the  wood  shows  signs  of 
rather  rough  wear,  and  the  ornaments,  which  were  evidently 
none  too  abundant  in  the  beginning,  have  disappeared  alto- 
gether, leaving  behind  them  ugly  scars  and  an  unprepossessing 
exterior.  The  inside  of  the  clock  is  infinitely  more  attractive, 
and  the  maker  appears  to  have  expended  most  of  his  energy  in 
beautifying  the  face  of  the  dial,  which  presents  a  somewhat 
marked  contrast  to  the  general  simplicity  of  the  old  time- 
piece. The  huge  pendulum  swings  back  and  forth  as  steadily 
as  it  ever  could  have  done  of  old,  and  the  deliberate  "  tick- 
tock,"  which  instilled  peace  and  quiet  into  the  hearts  of  our 
great-grandmothers,  breaks  the  silence  with  stern  solemnity 


420  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

and  rebukes  the  tiny  and  impudent  alarm  clock,  and  even  the 
china  clock  on  the  mantel,  for  their  presum})tion. 

This  remarkable  old  timepiece  was  manufactured  in  ICng- 
land  and  brought  to  America  during  the  early  part  of  the 
eighteenth  century.  It  witnessed  the  uprising  of  the  colo- 
nists, the  struggle  against  tyranny,  and  the  final  conclusion  of 
the  Kevolutionary  War.  Then  it  traveled  halfway  across  the 
continent  in  a  settler's  Avagon,  was  sold,  and,  after  passing 
through  different  hands,  regained  again  by  a  descendant  of 
its  former  owner,  in  whose  possession  it  now  is. 

TiiOREAu's  Essay  on  "  Sound  " 

The  very  prevalent  idea  that  Henry  David  Thoreau  was  a 
hermit  and  ascetic,  with  no  human  sym])athies  or  feelings 
kindred  to  those  of  his  fellow-men,  cannot  be  entertained  for  a 
moment  by  any  person  who  reads  /Sounds.  In  this  composi- 
tion the  poet-naturalist  of  Concord  has  revealed  his  true  self. 
He  shows  himself  a  man  interested  in  those  things  in  nature 
which  make  an  appeal  to  the  ear  as  well  as  to  the  eye. 
The  sketch  is  a  worthy  selection  from  a  worthy  volume. 
Wcdden  is  the  author's  greatest  work,  and  it  may  be  con- 
sidered that  Sounds  is  as  characteristic  an  illustration  of 
Thoreau's  peculiar  genius  as  could  be  chosen  from  the  whole 
book.  I  can  scarcely  bring  myself  to  denying  Thoreau  a  place 
among  America's  greatest  writers.  The  charm  of  Sounds 
consists  in  the  simplicity  and  truthfulness  with  which  the 
author  has  communicated  his  inner  thoughts  to  the  reader. 
He  does  not  stop  to  construct  elegant  and  sounding  sentences, 
but  describes  the  sounds  of  the  forest,  his  house-cleaning,  and 
the  passing  of  the  locomotive  with  absolute  unaffectedness. 
Every  phrase  is  spontaneous,  written  just  as  if  he  were  speak- 
ing on  tlu-  impulse  of  the  moment.  The  bits  of  philosophy 
interspersed  throughout  the  selection  seem  to  fall  naturally 
and  are  never  forced  or  uninteresting. 


THEME   CORRECTING  421 


Gravity  Versus   Gallantry 

In  the  country  the  day  of  a  Sunday-school  picnic  is  an  im- 
portant day  in  the  calendar.  I  remember  a  number  of  these 
days,  but  there  is  one  that  I  remember  particularly  well.  The 
day  itself  was  not  unusual,  although  it  differed  from  the  usual 
picnic  day  in  that  it  was  clear;  the  grounds  were  the  regular 
picnic  grounds;  and  the  dinner,  although  excellent,  was  very 
like  the  dinners  usually  served  on  such  occasions;  but  there 
was  one  event  that  I  am  reminded  of  every  time  I  revisit  the 
community. 

I  was  with  a  crowd  of  boys  and  girls  that  was — to  use  a 
colloquial  expression — killing  time  until  dinner.  We  were 
wandering  down  one  side  of  a  little  brook,  commonly  called 
"the  branch,"  when  one  of  the  girls  noticed  a  particularly 
excellent  fern  on  the  side  of  a  cliff  which  rose  abruptly  from 
the  opposite  edge  of  the  little  stream.  She  called  our  attention 
to  it  and  suggested  that  one  of  the  boys  get  it  for  her.  The 
country  boys  were  very  much  dressed  up.  In  their  Sunday 
clothes  and  inordinately  high  celluloid  collars,  they  were  very 
pompous  and  uncomfortable.  They  hesitated  to  volunteer. 
I  felt  myself  called  upon  and  said  that  I  would  go.  I  crossed 
the  brook  and  began  the  ascent  of  the  cliff.  I  climbed  diago- 
nally toward  the  plant,  aided  by  the  directions  of  those  below. 
In  a  little  bit  I  saw  the  plant  above  me.  I  confidently  put  my 
feet  on  this  projecting  root  and  reached  upward.  I  had  just 
grasped  it  when  I  heard  an  ominous  cracking  beneath  my  feet. 
Alas !  I  was  not  able  to  regain  my  footing.  I  descended  from 
my  position  on  the  cliff  with  considerably  more  rapidity  than 
I  had  ascended,  and  fell  with  a  mighty  splash  into  the  scant 
two  feet  of  water  which  the  little  brook  could  boast.  I  looked 
around  and  found  that  every  one  was  amused.  The  girl  was 
laughing,  too.  As  Artemus  Ward  says,  "This  vv^as  too  much." 
With  great  difficulty  I  climbed  back,  determined  to  have  that 
plant  if  I  never  got  anything  else. 


422  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 


What's  tiik  Use  of  Kicking? 

Did  you  ever  have  company  come  in  Sunday  evening  when 
you  had  planned  to  eat  the  dinner  scraps  for  supper?  We  did 
once.  It  wouldn't  have  mattered  much,  but  we  were  short  on 
coffee.  Even  then  it  didn't  make  much  difference,  as  the 
gentleman  was  an  old  friend,  and  besides  there  was  enough 
coffee  to  make  one  cup  around. 

Needless  to  say,  all  went  well  until  this  gentleman  drank 
his  allotted  share.  Then  papa  aired  his  perfectly  blissful 
ignorance  of  household  affairs. 

"Come,  Charlie,  have  another  cup  of  coffee." 
"Oh!  no,  thank  you,  I  truly  do  not  care  for  any  more." 
Still  papa  urged  until  finally  Mr.  Swigget  laughed  and  said, 
"Well,  you're  certainly  hospitable,  but  I  just  now  saw  your 
wife  draining  the  dregs  to  get  herself  a  cup.  That  just 
reminds  me  of  what  happened  to  Nell  the  other  day.  We  had 
company  and  my  sister  Dottie  got  supper.  We  had  oyster 
stew,  that  is,  some,  but  unfortunately  Nell  knew  nothing  of 
this.  Of  course  she  urged  our  friend  to  have  some  more.  A 
look  of  wild  dismay  spread  over  Dottie's  face  and  I  noticed  a 
smile  of  comprehension  steal  about  our  guest's  mouth.  Still 
Nell  urged;  Dottie  frowned,  and  the  gentleman  almost  choked 
as  he  politely  but  persistently  declined.  That  night  Dottie  got 
Nell  into  a  corner.  'Nellie  Swigget,'  she  said,  'I  could  just 
shake  you.  Why  in  the  world  did  you  keep  urging  Mr.  Rud- 
dick  to  have  more  soup,  in  spite  of  my  kicking  you?' 

"  '  Why,  Dot  Courtney,  you  didn't  kick  me  at  all.  You  must 
have  been  kicking  Mr.  Kuddick!  No  wonder  he  didn't  care 
for  any  more  stew.' " 

A  Camp  for  th?:  Nigtit 

After  our  supper  we  replenished  the  fire  and  sat  around  it, 
absorbing  the  (]uiet  night.     The  surrounding  trees  were  lit  up 


THEME   CORRECTING  423 

by  the  blaze;  outside  this  rim  of  light  all  was  dark.  Near  us 
gurgled  the  eddies  of  the  murky  Ohio  River,  across  from  the 
water  lay  the  rolling  hills  of  Kentucky.  We  had  just  begun 
to  read  out  of  The  Americari  Claimant,  with  its  plentiful 
store  of  real  "Twain"  humor,  when  a  distant  rumbling  and 
churning  down  the  river  warned  us  of  the  approaching  mail 
packet.  We  left  the  fire  and  went  down  to  the  gravelly  beach, 
and,  sure  enough,  a  cluster  of  lights  was  seen  coming  around 
the  bend  below  us.  Nearer  and  nearer  it  approached,  the  noise 
increasing,  the  lights  showing  more  distinctl3^  Just  below  us 
the  boat  stopped  and  then  came  on  again,  sweeping  majestically 
by  our  shore.  We  caught  a  good  sight  of  her  by  means  of  her 
well-lighted  decks,  her  clumsy  bulk,  churning  paddle  wheels, 
smoking  stacks,  and  merry  upper  decks.  Huge  cranes  hung  out 
from  either  side  and  her  lower  deck  was  heaped  with  freight. 
Slowly  receding  into  the  uncertain  dimness  of  the  night,  she 
left  us  as  she  had  come;  the  lights  receded,  the  noise  grew 
fainter  and,  in  addition,  the  waves  rolled  over  the  low  beach. 
We  returned  to  the  smoldering  fire,  we  heard  two  sonorous 
blasts  from  the  steamboat,  and  all  was  quiet  as  death.  The 
reading  was  resumed  and  we  listened  to  the  caprices  of  old 
Colonel  Sellers  and  Washington  Hawkins.  Then,  with  a  light 
as  of  dawn,  the  moon  rose  over  the  Kentucky  hills,  leaving  a 
flickering  pathway  on  the  water,  bidding  us  to  retire  and  to 
leave  sentry  duty  to  her  watchful  care. 


CHAPTER  X 

PUNCTUATION 

The  question  of  pnnctviation  is  becoming  less  arbitrary 
and  more  a  matter  of  good  judgment  and  good  taste. 
The  present  tendency  is  to  do  away  with  all  marks  of 
punctuation  which  do  not  make  clearer  the  meaning  of  the 
sentence.  A  punctuation  mark  makes  a  sentence  clear 
either  by  denoting  a  break  in  the  writer's  thought  or  by 
indicating  the  grammatical  relations  between  words  or 
groups  of  words. 

Although  usage  in  punctuation  varies  widely,  —  espe- 
cially with  respect  to  the  comma  and  the  semicolon,  —  a  few 
rules  commonly  employed  by  reputable  writers  sliould  be 
memorized  and  put  into  practice.  It  will  be  still  further 
helpful  to  tl^e  student  to  note  carefully  the  punctuation  of 
the  best  writers. 

Uses  of  the  Period. 

1.  The  period  is  used  to  mark  the  end  of  imperative  and 
declarative  sentences. 

Go  to  the  ant,  thou  sluggard. 

Tlie  power  of  Rome  had  already  begun  to  decline  in  the 
East. 

Note. — The  use  of  the  comma  between  two  sentences  is 
an  unmistakable  indication  of  carelessness  or  ignorance ;  as, 

We  started  early  in  the  morning,  the  sun  had  just  risen  and 
was  bathing  the  distant  hills  in  a  flood  of  light. 

424 


PUNCTUATION  425 

2.  The  period  is  used  with  a  letter,  or  at  the  end  of  a 
combination  of  letters  used  as  an  abbreviation. 

M.  (noon),  C.O.D.  (collect  on  delivery),  viz.  (namely). 

EXERCISES 

I.  Consult  your  dictionary  for  the  abbreviations  of  the 
folloiving  ivords  and  expressions.  Construct  sentences  illus- 
trating the  first  thirty. 

Anonymous,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord,  Master  of  Arts,  before 
noon,  after  noon,  before  Christ,  Bachelor  of  Arts,  Bachelor  of 
Science,  Civil  Engineer,  compare,  collect  on  delivery,  for  ex- 
ample, and  so  forth.  Doctor  of  Laws,  Doctor  of  Civil  Law, 
Bachelor  of  Laws,  Doctor  of  Divinity,  Doctor  of  Medicine, 
Doctor  of  Philosophy,  Member  of  Congress,  Member  of  Par- 
liament, manuscript,  manuscripts,  postscript,  Monsieur,  Made- 
moiselle, Madame,  present  month,  last  month,  next  month. 
Florida,  Georgia,  Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  Kentucky,  Maine, 
Connecticut,  Missouri,  ISTevada,  Iowa,  South  Dakota,  Idaho. 

II.  Memorize  the  folloiving  abbreviations  and  their  mean- 
ings and  ivrite  sentences  illustrating  their  uses: 

ad  lib.  (Latin,  ad  libitum),  at  pleasure. 
ad  fin.  (Latin,  adfinem),  to  the  end. 

ibid.  (Latin,  ibidem,  meaning  in  the  same  place),  a  term  used 
to  refer  to  an  author  or  book  just  mentioned. 
i.e.  (Latin,  id  est),  that  is. 

N.B.  (Latin,  nota  bene),  mark  well  or  take  notice. 
pro  tern.  (Latin,  2yi'o  tempore),  for  the  time  being. 
vid.  (Latin,  vide),  see. 
viz.  (Latin,  videlicet),  to  wit,  namely. 

III.  Reivrite  the  folloiving  exercise,  supplying  the  words 
for  which  the  abbreviations  stand.  Read  the  rewritten  exer- 
cise aloud  in  class. 


426  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  190G  A.l).  there  met  in  the  city  of  Boston,  Mass.,  a  body 
of  distinguished  men.  Among  them  were  many  university 
graduates  upon  whom  had  been  bestowed  various  degrees ; 
such  as  M.A.,  K.A.,  B.S.,  (J.E.,  M.D.,  LL.D.,  Ph.D.,  D.C.L., 
and  K.L.  Some  of  them  were  men  of  high  official  rank,  one 
of  them  being  an  M.C.,  and  another,  from  Enghmd,  an  M.P. 
A  few  foreigners,  too,  the  most  conspicuous  of  whom  was  M. 
Balzac,  were  present.  The  object  of  the  meeting  was  to  discuss 
the  means  of  securing  from  Egypt  some  famous  old  Mss., 
which  had  been  written  300  b.c.  At  the  close  of  the  discus- 
sion the  members  agreed  to  hold  another  meeting  on  the  14th 
prox. ;  then  they  departed  to  their  various  homes  in  Fla.,  Va., 
Ga.,  Ky.,  Me.,  Conn.,  Mo.,  Penn.,  O.,  N.Y.,  N.J.,  Del.,  N.H., 
R.I.,  Vt,  etc. 

Uses  of  the  Comma.  —  The  comma  is  used  to  mark  off 
words  or  groups  of  words  within  the  sentence.  It  usually 
denotes  either  a  slight  pause  in  thought  or  the  omission 
of  words  grammatically  necessary,  or  the  insertion  of 
words  or  expressions  not  necessary  to  the  grammatical 
structure  of  the  sentence.  The  pause  indicated  by  a 
comma  is  slighter  than  that  which  the  semicolon  or  colon 
denotes.  The  following  rules  for  its  use  are  commonly 
observed : 

1.  The  comma  is  used  at  the  end  of  introductory  phrases 
and  dependent  clauses. 

Being  worn  out  with  our  journey,  we  remained  at  the  inn 
over  night. 

After  the  sun  went  down,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

If  the  first  proposition  had  been  accepted,  all  would  have 
gone  well. 

Note. — The  comma  is  often  omitted  after  short  intro- 
ductory phrases  and  clauses  which  are  closely  related  to 
the  following  words  ;   as, 


PUNCTUATION  427 

Off  in  the  distance  we  discerned  the  lofty  peaks  of  the  Alps. 

2.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  used  parenthetically. 

I  am,  however,  of  your  opinion. 

He  is,  to  be  sure,  a  trifle  too  precise. 

Lanier  is,  I  think,  a  great  poet. 

Note.  —  An  expression  is  parenthetical  when  it  is 
neither  logicall}^  nor  grammatically  necessary  to  the  struc- 
ture of  the  rest  of  the  sentence.  These  expressions  afford 
an  opportunity  to  the  writer  to  introduce  matter  which, 
though  unessential,  is  interesting  to  the  reader. 

3.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  each  other  the 
words,  phrases,  or  dependent  clauses  of  a  series,  when  the 
connective  is  omitted. 

Our  minds,  our  hearts,  our  hands,  we  give  to  our  country. 

Living  a  quiet  peasant  life  in  the  little  village  of  Domremy, 
marching  at  the  head  of  victorious  legions,  and  then  dying  at 
the  stake  —  this  was  the  history  of  Jeanne  D'Arc. 

Suddenly  we  discovered  that  we  were  surrounded  by  the  In- 
dians, that  all  our  ammunition  was  gone,  and  that  there  was 
no  way  of  escape. 

Note  1.  — When  only  one  connective  is  used  in  a  series, 
— the  connective  used  between  the  last  two  members, — 
the  comma  usually  precedes  it;  as, 

Apples,  pears,  and  peaches. 
To  live,  to  love,  and  to  suffer. 

Note  2.  —  The  comma  supplies  the  place  of  an  omitted 
connective  between  the  phrases  or  clauses  of  a  series  when 
such  phrases  or  clauses  are  short  or  when  they  are  very 
closely  related  in  thought ;  otherwise  the  semicolon 
should  be  used. 


428  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

4.  For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  comma  is  used  before 
the  connective  between  the  parts  of  a  long  compound  predi- 
cate ;  it  is  also  used  before  the  connective  between  the 
statements  of  a  compound  sentence  when  there  is  a  slight 
break  in  the  thought. 

Its  southern  limb  came  down  before  the  group  of  trees,  and 
enveloped  the  fair  vision. 

An  approving  murmur  followed,  and  the  clergyman  took 
his  seat  with  much  self-congratulation. 

o.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  dependent  clauses  which  do  not  restrict  the 
words  they  modify. 

They  may  have  pictured  America  to  themselves  as  an  El 
Dorado,  where  gold  and  silver  abounded. 

l->ut  these  causes,  which  are  operatiug  to  ennoble  our  coun- 
try, are  all  lost  upon  those  purblind  observers. 

Note.  —  The  comma  should  not  be  used  before  depend- 
ent clauses  which  restrict  the  words  they  modify. 

The  high  school  which  is  located  on  Washington  Street  is 
not  so  largely  attended  as  the  one  on  the  south  side  of  tlic  city. 

We  finally  came  to  that  part  of  the  stream  where  the  current 
was  strongest. 

Notp:.  —  For  the  sake  of  coherence,  a  restrictive  clause 
separated  by  a  word  or  f^roup  of  words  from  the  word 
which  it  niodilit'S,  is  ])re(H'ded  by  a  cnnuua  ;   as, 

lie  is  tlie  only  man  in  America,  wlio  understands  the  matter. 

C).  The  comma  is  used  before  a  direct  quotation  consisting 
of  a  single  sentence. 

He  said,  "  Come  on,  let  us  go." 

7.    The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 


PUNCTUATION  429 

sentence,  phrases  and  clauses  which  are  removed  from  the 
words  they  modify. 

I  am  here  in  this  beautiful  castle,  waiting  the  arrival  of  the 
messenger. 

8.  For  the  sake  of  clearness,  the  comma  is  sometimes 
used  between  the  subject  and  the  predicate.  It  should 
always  be  used  at  the  end  of  a  long,  modified  subject. 

Whatever  is,  is  right. 

The  tree  which  stood  at  the  farthest  end  of  the  garden,  was 
blown  down  last  niglit. 

0.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  words,  phrases,  or  clauses  used  in  apposition. 

Edison,  the  great  inventor,  is  now  working  on  a  new  con- 
trivance. 

The  question,  "  To  be  or  not  to  be,"  has  disturbed  many 
minds  before  and  since  the  time  of  Shakspere. 

The  truth,  that  God  exists,  is  so  obvious  that  it  needs  no 
proof. 

Note.  —  When  a  word  in  apposition  is  used  with  the 
force  of  an  attributive  modifier,  it  is  not  set  off  by  commas; 
as, 

Sister  Mary  and  I ;  the  artist  Steele  ;  Queen  Victoria. 

10.  The  comma  is  used  to  separate  from  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  words  or  phrases  in  direct  address. 

Friends,  Romans,  Countrymen,  lend  me  your  ears. 
Ye  bloody  slaves  of  Rome,  come  work  your  will. 

11.  The  comma  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  participial  phrase 
used  absolutely. 

The  war  having  been  brought  to  a  successful  close,  Ceesar 
led  his  army  into  winter  quarters. 


430  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

12.    The  comma  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  words 
grammatically  necessary  to  the  construction  of  a  sentence. 

Norbert  was  tnitliful ;  Constance,  diploiuatic. 
The  post  office  stands  on  the  southeast  coiner;  tlie  terminal 
station,  on  the  southwest. 

EXERCISE 

Supply  the  necessary    commas  omitted  in  the  following 
sentences.      Grive  the  rule  for  each  comma  used. 

1.  As  they  traversed  the  short  distance  not  a  voice  was 
heard  amongst  thein. 

2.  Being  little  accustomed  to  the  practice  of  the  savage  you 
mistrust  the  real  danger. 

3.  The  great  charm  however  of  English  scenery  is  the  moral 
feeling  that  seems  to  pervade  it. 

4.  A  termagant  wife  may  therefore  in  some  respects  be 
considered  a  tolerable  blessing. 

5.  It  seemed  as  if  some  living  creature  were  about  to 
appear  the  Xaiad  of  the  Spring  perhaps  in  the  shape  of  a 
beautiful  young  woman. 

6.  Then  careful  housewife  that  she  was  she  set  about  to 
clean  the  fountain  of  withered  leaves  and  slimy  wood. 

7.  Through  the  dim  rosiness  of  the  cheeks  I  could  see  the 
brown  leaves  the  slim  twigs  the  acorns  and  the  shining  sands. 

8.  At  home  on  the  streets  in  the  workshops  everywhere 
the  question  was  discussed. 

9.  His  chief  aims  were  to  restore  order  to  educate  the 
natives  and  to  give  them  civil  rights. 

10.  He  assured  them  that  he  would  return  that  he  would 
bring  an  army  and  that  he  would  save  them  from  their  enemies. 

11.  After  this  yell  of  victory  they  tore  up  the  fragrant  bed 
of  the  cavern  and  bore  the  branches  into  the  chasm. 

12.  With  a  light  step  and  lighter  heart  he  returned  to  the 
center  of  the  cave  and  took  up  his  position  there. 


PUNCTUATION  431 

13.  The  Indians  as  if  changing  their  purpose  by  a  common 
impulse  broke  away  from  the  chasm  in  a  body  and  were  heard 
rushing  up  the  island  again. 

14.  The  cavern  was  entered  at  both  extremities  and  he  and 
his  companions  were  dragged  from  their  shelter. 

15.  He  heard  the  two  Hurons  leave  the  bushes  and  it  was 
soon  plain  that  all  the  pursuers  were  gathered  about  them. 

16.  They  listened  to  detect  any  symptoms  which  might 
announce  the  proximity  of  the  foe. 

17.  They  were  led  to  a  high  flat  topped  mound  where  they 
were  afterward  put  to  severest  torture. 

18.  He  again  turned  toward  those  who  had  just  entered. 

19.  He  called  to  Magna- who  immediately  approached  and 
threw  himself  on  the  ground. 

20.  We  passed  through  the  gate  which  leads  to  the  south. 

21.  The  mountain  on  which  they  stood  was  a  high  cone  that 
rose  a  little  in  advance  of  its  range. 

22.  How  long  Duncan  lay  in  this  state  he  never  knew  but 
his  slumbering  visions  had  been  long  lost  in  total  forgetfulness 
when  he  was  awakened  by  a  light  tap  on  the  shoulder. 

23.  This  spring  which  many  years  before  had  been  dis- 
covered by  the  natives  was  soon  cleared  of  its  leaves  and  a 
fountain  of  crystal  gushed  from  the  bed  diffusing  its  waters 
over  the  verdant  hillock. 

24.  "  'Tis  true  in  part "  said  the  scout  "  and  yet  at  the 
bottom  'tis  a  wicked  lie." 

25.  We  know  that  the  work  is  a  vast  one  but  we  believe  it 
can  be  done. 

26.  The  belief  that  all  men  are  created  equal  rests  at  the 
foundation  of  our  government. 

27.  He  resembles  you  only  in  this  that  he  is  absolutely  free 
from  prejudice. 

28.  Rome  the  City  of  Seven  Hills  was  then  the  ruling  power 
in  the  East. 

29.  You  who  are  interested  in  clean  politics  and  in  good 
government  now  take  your  stand  for  the  right. 


432  CO.MPUSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

30.  The  convention  having  assembled  at  an  early  hour  a 
great  deal  of  business  was  transacted  before  noon. 

31.  That  ultimate  triumph  will  grow  out  of  apparent  failure 
is  a  central  idea  in  Browning's  philosoi)hy. 

32.  To  the  soldiers  who  fought  so  valiantly  is  the  victory 
due. 

Uses  of  the  Semicolon  : 

1.  The  semicolon  is  used  between  the  statements  of  a 
compound  sentence  when  the  connective  is  omitted :  it  is 
also  used  together  with  the  connective  when  the  break  in 
thought  is  too  great  to  justify  the  use  of  the  comma. 

The  vigor  of  Omar  began  to  fail ;  the  curls  of  beauty  fell 
from  his  head ;  strength  de])arted  from  his  hands,  and  agility 
from  his  feet. 

I  now  postponed  my  pur})ose  of  traveling ;  for  why  should 
I  go  abroad,  while  so  much  remained  to  be  learned  at  home  ? 

Note  1.  —  Wlien  the  statements  of  a  conipound  sen- 
tence are  short  and  closely  related,  the  comma  may  supply 
the  place  of  an  omitted  connective  ;  as, 

I  came,  I  saw,  I  conquered. 

Note  2. — The  semicolon  is  generally  used  between  the 
members  of  compound  sentences  connected  by  aUo,  more- 
over^ likewise^  besides^  yet^  fievertheless,  however,  still,  not- 
withstanding, therefore,  consequently,  hence ;  as. 

Twice  they  were  repulsed  ;  yet  they  fought  on. 

2.  The  semicolon  supplies  the  place  of  an  omitted  connec- 
tive between  the  phrases  or  dependent  clauses  of  a  series 
when  the  relation  is  not  close  enough  to  justify  the  use  of 
the  comma. 

Not  to  follow  your  leader  whithersoever  he  may  think  jiroper 
to  lead;  to  back  out  of  an  expedition  because  the  end  of  it 


PUNCTUATION  433 

frowns  dubious;  to  quit  a  comrade  on  the  road  and  return 
liome  Avitliout  him  —  these  are  tricks  which  no  boy  of  spirit 
woukl  be  guilty  of. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men  are 
created  equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights ;  that  among  these  are  life,  liberty, 
and  the  pursuit  of  happiness. 

Note.  ■ — When  the  phrases  and  dependent  clauses  of  a 
series  are  short  and  closely  related,  the  comma  supplies  the 
place  of  an  omitted  connective. 

3.  The  semicolon  precedes  as,  namely,  that  is,  used  to  in- 
troduce an  example  or  an  explanation. 

A  transitive  verb  needs  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning; 
as,  "  The  boy  threw  the  ball." 

His  aim  was  threefold ;  namely,  to  conquer  the  country,  to 
subdue  the  natives,  and  to  establish  civil  law. 

Browning's  dramas  are  subjective;  that  is,  they  reflect  the 
poet's  own  mood  rather  than  that  of  the  character  which  he 
creates. 

EXERCISES 

I.    Supply  semicolons  where  they  are  needed  in  the  folloiv- 

ing  sentences : 

1.  Her  bloom  gave  place  to  the  paleness  of  death  her  soft  and 
melting  eyes  became  hard  and  seemed  contracted  with  horror 
and  her  hands  which  she  had  raised  toward  heaven  dropped  to 
her  side. 

2.  Her  eyes  were  radiant  with  the  glow  of  grateful  feeling 
the  flush  of  her  beauty  was  again  seated  on  her  cheek  and  her 
whole  soul  seemed  ready  to  pour  out  a  fervent  thanksgiving. 

3.  The  clamorous  noises  again  rushed  down  the  island  and 
before  Duncan  had  time  to  recover  from  the  shock  his  feeble 
barrier  of  brush  was  scattered  to  the  winds. 

2f 


434  COMPOSITIOX    AND    RHETORIC 

4.  The  question  put  by  Le  Renard  was  calm  and  dignified 
but  his  treacherous  heart  was  filled  with  bitter  hatred. 

5.  David's  horse  had  been  taken  by  the  followers  of  the  big 
chief  consequently  Cora  and  Alice  had  to  walk. 

6.  You  have  seen  the  gray -head  (?)  in  front  of  his  warriors 
Magna  but  I  have  seen  his  eyes  swimming  in  water  when  he 
spoke  of  his  children. 

7.  The  white  man  may  and  does  often  forget  the  burial 
place  of  his  father  he  sometimes  ceases  to  remember  those  he 
should  love  but  the  affection  of  a  parent  for  his  child  is  never 
permitted  to  die. 

8.  These  little  paths  are  full  of  pitfalls  among  the  roots 
and  stones  and  nimble  as  the  deer  is  he  sometimes  breaks  one  of 
his  slender  legs  in  them. 

9.  This  dryness  has  its  advantages  the  walking  is  improved 
the  long  heat  has  expressed  all  the  spicy  odors  of  the  cedars 
and  balsams  and  the  woods  are  filled  with  a  smoothing  fra- 
grance the  waters  of  the  stream  though  scant  and  clear  are  cold 
as  ice  and  the  common  forest  chill  is  gone  from  the  air. 

10.  He  knew  no  motive  but  interest  he  acknowledged  no 
criterion  but  success  he  worshiped  no  God  but  ambition 
and  with  an  eastern  devotion  he  knelt  at  the  shrine  of  his 
idolatry. 

11.  With  a  mind  bold  independent  and  decisive  with  a  will 
despotic  in  its  dictates  with  an  energy  that  distanced  expedi- 
tion and  with  a  conscience  pliable  to  every  touch  of  interest 
Napoleon  pursued  the  most  extraordinary  course  in  the  annals 
of  the  world. 

12.  He  beheld  him  in  the  star  that  sank  in  beauty  behind 
his  lonely  dwelling  in  the  sacred  orb  that  flamed  on  him  from 
his  midday  throne  in  the  flower  that  snapped  in  the  morning 
breeze  in  the  lofty  pine  that  defied  a  thousand  whirlwinds  in  the 
timid  warbler  that  never  left  its  native  grove  and  in  his  own 
matchless  form  glowing  with  a  spark  of  that  light  to  whose 
mysterious  source  he  bent  in  humble  though  blind  adoration. 


PUNCTUATION  435 

II.  Giive  rules  for  the  use  of  the  commas  and  of  the  semi- 
colons in  the  follotving  sentences  : 

1.  Doubtless  the  French  tastes  of  the  king  were  not  with- 
out their  effects  on  literature ;  but  a  still  more  important  rea- 
son for  the  English  following  of  French  models  remains  to  be 
noticed. 

2.  It  was  an  age  of  uniinpassioned  logic,  of  intellectual  curi- 
osity ;  its  keen-edged  intelligence  occupied  itself  with  theories 
of  government  and  with  speculations  of  philosophy;  its  frigid 
good  sense  turned  to  biography  and  memoirs,  to  history,  criti- 
cism, and  letters. 

3.  In  America,  a  republic  is  established  on  the  foundations 
of  human  freedom  and  equality  ;  in  feudal  France,  after  gener- 
ations of  dumb  misery,  the  people  lift  their  bowed  backs  from 
labor,  to  wreak  on  their  rulers  the  accumulated  vengeance  of 
centuries. 

4.  Men  are  possessed  with  a  fever  for  the  "  rights  of  man  "  ; 
they  dream  of  a  wholesale  reorganization  of  society ;  they 
struggle  to  convert  Rousseau's  gospel  of  a  "  return  to  nature  " 
into  a  practical  reality. 

5.  He  behaved  like  a  madman;  he  tore  his  hair;  he 
gnashed  his  teeth,  and  he  shouted  demoniacally. 

6.  Wordsworth's  mystical  rapture  in  the  presence  of  the  liv- 
ing Avorld,  is  very  different  from  a  merely  sensuous  delight ;  it 
is,  in  his  highest  moods,  a  profoundly  religious  emotion. 

7.  He  asked  only  one  favor;  namely,  to  be  permitted  to 
sleep  on  a  pile  of  straw  in  the  shed. 

8.  Christ  is  a  refuge  for  all  sinners;  that  is,  for  all  who 
accept  His  grace. 

Note.  — A  great  many  writers  employ  the  dash  before 
that  is. 

9.  She  was  no  longer  a  timid  little  woman  afraid  of  her 
own  shadow ;  all  the  courage  of  her  ancestors  was  reflected  in 
her  eyes  and  in  the  rigid  lines  around  her  mouth. 


436  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

10.  It  is  one  thing  to  be  audacious  ;  it  is  anotlior  to  be  truly 
brave. 

11.  He  is  not  a  mere  church  member;  he  is  a  genuine 
Christian. 

12.  There  fell  upon  tlicir  ears  one  low,  unearthly  sound; 
then  all  was  quiet  again. 

13.  Although  he  had  fought  all  his  life  to  subdue  this  weak- 
ness; although  he  had  enlisted  all  the  resources  of  his  mind 
and  will  in  the  conflict  against  his  fiery  thirst ;  although  he 
hated  himself  because  of  his  slavery  to  alcohol,  he  finally  died 
a  drunkard. 

14.  She  told  how  ISrarmion  had  enticed  lier  from  the  convent 
and  how  he  had  then  betrayed  her  for  gold ;  how  he  had  accused 
de  Wilton  of  treason  and  how  he  had  afterward  fought  in 
combat  with  him  ;  and  huw  he  was  now  forcing  his  attention 
upon  the  unhappy  Clare. 

III.  Construct  sentences  similar  to  the  preceding  ones  and 
punctuate  them  carefully. 

Uses  of  the  Colon.  —  The  colon  is  a  mark  of  anticipation. 
It  is  generally  preceded  by  a  statement  which  arouses  a 
feeling  of  expectancy  or  anticipation,  and  is  always  fol- 
lowed by  words  or  groups  of  words  which  satisfy  that 
feeling  by  explaining  or  sjjecifying  the  preceding  state- 
ment.     The  following  rules  are  generally  observed: 

1.  The  colon  is  used  between  the  members  of  a  compound 
sentence,  when  the  connective  is  omitted,  to  show  that  the 
clause  which  follows  the  first  statement  is  explanatory  or 
illustrative. 

The  Japanese  had  this  advantage  over  the  Russians :  they 
were  much  smaller  than  the  Kussians  and  hence  did  not  make 
such  easy  targets. 


PUNCTUATION  437 

2.  The  colon  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  statement  which  is 
followed  by  a  series  of  explanatory  words,  phrases,  or 
clauses. 

The  following  books  have  been  ordered  for  the  rental 
library :  Lossing's  Cudopcedia  of  American  Histori/,  Grant's 
3Iemoirs,  Warner's  Library  of  the  WorkVs  Best  Literature, 
and  Mrs.  Orr's  Hand-Book  to  Browning. 

He  gave  us  these  directions :  to  take  the  enemy  by  surprise, 
to  fire  as  soon  as  we  saw  the  whites  of  their  eyes,  and  then  to 
set  fire  to  their  camp. 

We  hold  these  truths  to  be  self-evident :  that  all  men  are 
created  equal ;  that  they  are  endowed  by  their  Creator  with 
certain  inalienable  rights  ;  etc. 

3.  The  colon  is  used  before  a  long  formal  quotation  ; 
also  before  a  formal  statement  introduced  by  such  words 
as  this,  these,  thus,  and  as  follows. 

In  these  famous  lines  from  Tamhurlaine,  Marlowe  himself 
seems  to  speak  to  us: 

"  Nature,  that  framed  us  of  four  elements 
Warring  within  our  breasts  for  regiment 
Doth  teach  us  all  to  have  aspiring  minds ; 
Our  souls  whose  faculties  can  comprehend 
The  wondrous  architecture  of  the  world, 
And  measure  every  wandering  planet's  course, 
Still  climbing  after  knowledge  infinite, 
And  always  moving  as  the  restless  spheres, 
Will  us  to  wear  ourselves  and  never  rest." 

This  epitaph  we  found  on  Shakspere's  tomb : 

"  Good  friend,  for  Jesus'  sake  forbear 
To  dig  the  dust  inclosed  here ; 
Blest  be  the  man  that  spares  these  stones, 
And  cursed  he  that  moves  my  bones." 


438  COMPOSITIOX    AND   RHETORIC 

4.  The  colon  is  used  at  the  end  of  the  salutation  in  a 
letter. 

]\ry  dear  Sir : 

My  dear  Miss  Elliot : 

My  dear  Friend : 

Note.  — The  colon  at  the  end  of  the  salutation,  even  in 
informal  letters,  is  growing  in  favor  over  the  less  accurate 
comma,  or  the  comma  and  dash. 

EXERCISES 

I.  Illustrate  in  original  sentences  the  preeedinfi  rules  for 
the  uses  of  the  colon.  Find  Jive  sentences  which  illustrate 
rule  1  for  the  use  of  the  colon  ;  three  which  illustrate  rule  2  ; 
three  which  illustrate  rule  3. 

II.  Punctuate  the  following  sentences,  and  give  the  rule 
for  each  comma,  semicolon,  and  colon  used: 

1.  He  faithfully  practiced  these  precepts  which  his  mother 
had  taught  him  in  early  life  to  be  diligent  in  business  to  be 
honest  in  his  dealings  with  his  fellow-men  and  to  be  charitable 
to  those  who  needed  his  help. 

2.  The  following  abbreviations  from  the  Latin  language 
are  in  common  use  ult.  prox.  inst.  i.e.  vid.  viz.  ad  lib.  ad  fin. 

3.  Our  dinner  like  most  meals  in  the  open  air  differed  frcmi 
dinners  indoors  in  three  respects  in  the  first  place  it  was  eaten 
with  ravenous  appetites  the  best  sauce  in  the  world  in  the 
second  place  the  quality  of  the  food  didn't  matter  to  us  in  the 
third  place  our  talk  was  free  and  easy  and  made  up  in  laughter 
what  it  lacked  in  wit. 

4.  A  number  of  suggestions  were  made  one  thought  it 
advisable  to  expend  the  money  for  a  churt'.h  carpet  another 
thought  it  could  better  be  spent  on  a  furnace  than  on  a  church 
carpet  and  another  wanted  a  piano  for  tlie  lecture  room. 


PUNCTUATION  439 

5.  Irving  was  deeply  impressed  by  this  simple  inscription 
which  he  found  on  one  of  the  tombs  in  Westminster  Abbey 
'*  All  the  brothers  were  brave  all  the  sisters  were  virtuous." 

6.  Keats  was  highly  sensuous  the  fragrance  of  a  flower  the 
blue  color  of  the  sky  or  the  musical  notes  of  a  bird  made  him 
drunk  with  delight. 

7.  Our  present  conception  of  God  is  a  complex  conception 
it  is  made  up  of  the  Christian  God  of  Love,  the  Greek  God  of 
Wisdom  and  Kationality  and  the  Hindoo  God  of  Omni- 
presence. 

8.  Congress  distinguished  itself  during  its  last  session  by 
the  passage  of  the  following  reform  bills  a  bill  for  the  regula- 
tion of  a  railroad  shipping  rates  a  bill  for  the  manufacture  of 
pure  food  and  a  bill  for  the  admission  of  educated  Chinese. 

9.  I  am  deficient  in  the  sense  of  direction  I  lose  myself 
whenever  I  get  aAvay  from  home. 

10.  Carlyle  divides  all  men  into  two  classes  those  who  bor- 
row and  those  who  lend. 

11.  He  often  recalled  this  stanza  from  Whittier 

Yet  in  the  maddening  maze  of  things 

And  tossed  by  storm  and  flood 
To  one  fixed  state  my  spirit  clings 

I  know  that  God  is  good. 

12.  We   feel  the  exultant  thrill  of  this  triumph  in  those 
stirring  words  in  Shakspere's  King  John 

"  This  England  never  did,  nor  never  shall 
Lie  at  the  foot  of  a  proud  conqueror." 

Uses  of  the  Question  Mark : 

1.    The  question  mark  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  direct 
question. 

He  asked,     "  Where  were  you  employed  before  you  came 
here  ?  " 


440  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Note.  — The  question  mark  is  not  })lace(l  at  the  end  of 
an  indirect  question  ;   as, 

He  asked  me  where  I  had  been  employed  before  I  came 
here. 

2.  A  question  mark  is  sometimes  used  at  the  end  of  a 
statement  to  show  that  it  is  interrogative  in  meaning. 

You  have  already  seen  him  then?  (equivalent  to,  Have  you 
already  seen  him  ?) 

3.  When  the  accuracy  of  a  statement  is  doubtful,  or 
when  the  statement  is  ironical,  the  question  mark  inclosed 
in  parentheses,  is  placed  after  the  doubtful  word  or  group 
of  words. 

You  will  doubtless  be  glad  (?)  to  hear  that  I  am  coming  to 
visit  you. 

Shakspere  was  born  on  the  23d  (?)  day  of  April,  1564. 

Uses  of  the  Exclamation  Point : 

1.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  end  of  an 
exclamatory  sentence. 

How  beautiful  the  long,  mild  twilight  which  like  a  silver 
clasp  unites  to-day  with  yesterday  ! 

2.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  after  interjections  and 
other  exclamatory  words  and  phrases. 

Hark!  the  wind  rushes  past  us. 
Forgive  !  forgive  !     0,  forgive  ! 

The  Greeks  !  the  Greeks  !     They  come  !  they  come! 
On  to  Richmond  !  on  to  Richmond  !  was  the  cry  from  the 
North. 

Note.  — If  the  writer  wishes  to  lay  stress  upon  the  entire 
sentence  rather  than  upon  the  interjection  with  which  it 
begins,  the  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  at  the  end 


PUNCTUATION  441 

of  the  sentence.  If  he  wishes  to  emphasize  both  the  ex- 
clamatory word  and  the  sentence  which  it  introduces,  the 
exclamation  point  may  be  used  both  after  the  interjection 
and  at  the  end  of  the  sentence  ;   as, 

Ah,  Marguerite,  fain  would  these  arms  reach  to  clasp  thee ! 
or,  Ah  !  would  I  were  there  ! 

3.  The  exclamation  point  is  used  at  the  end  of  a  sar- 
castic, ironical,  or  contemptuous  expression. 

John  Browder  to  be  our  next  captain !  we'll  never  submit 
to  hira. 

You're  a  fine  fellow  !  you  are  ! 

And  you  are  the  one  who  betrayed  me  ! 

Uses  of  the  Dash : 

1.  The  dash  is  used  to  denote  a  sudden  change  in  thought 
or  in  construction. 

He  said  —  but  why  should  I  repeat  what  he  said  ? 

Yes  —  no  —  0,  go  away  and  don't  bother  me. 

I  dreamed  —  ah,  but  I  dare  not  tell  you  all  that  I  dreamed. 

2.  Dashes  may  be  used  to  mark  off  parenthetical  ex- 
pressions which  are  less  loosely  connected  with  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  than  commas  would  denote,  but  more  closely 
connected  than  parentheses  would  denote. 

He  was  chiefly  marked  as  a  gentleman  —  if  indeed  he  made 
any  such  claim  —  by  the  rather  remarkable  whiteness  and  nicety 
of  his  linen. 

Then,  to  our  surprise,  we  were  ushered  into  the  presence  of 
the  King  himself. 

This  scene  (I  shall  describe  it  in  full  when  I  see  you)  sur- 
passed everything  else  that  we  saw  in  Italy. 

3.  To  heighten  the  effect  of  climax  or  anti-climax,  the 
dash  is  often  used  before  a  word  or  group  of  words  at  the 
end  of  a  sentence. 


442  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

And  then  comes  —  death. 

Opening  the  door  with  fear  and  trembling,  I  found  —  a  wee, 
trembling  little  mouse. 

4.  Dashes  are  often  used  between  words  or  groups  of 
words  in  a  sentence  to  denote  the  broken  speech  of  uncon- 
trolled emotion. 

She  sobbed,  "I  have  —  T  have  —  broken  —  my  —  my  —  dol — 
dolly's  —  hea — head." 

5.  Whenever  a  simple  statement  is  amplified  by  a  series 
of  explanatory  phrases  or  clauses,  the  dash  is  used  before  or 
after  the  series  according  as  the  series  precedes  or  follows 
the  statement  which  it  amplifies. 

To  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself,  to  do  good  to  them  that  per- 
secute you,  and  to  visit  the  widows  and  the  orphans  —  these 
are  some  of  the  commands  which  Christ  enjoins  upon  his 
followers. 

Her  aims  were  simple  and  obvious  —  to  preserve  her  throne, 
to  keep  England  out  of  war,  to  restore  civil  and  religious  order. 

Note. — If  the  amplifying  phrases  or  clauses  are  long 
and  punctuated,  the  colon  is  used  along  with  the  dash;  as, 

Thus  not  to  follow  your  leader  whithersoever  he  may  think 
proper  to  lead ;  to  back  out  of  an  expedition  because  the  end 
of  it  proves  dubious,  and  the  present  fruit  of  it  is  discomfort; 
to  quit  a  comrade  on  the  road  and  return  home  without  him  :  — 
these  are  tricks  which  no  boy  of  spirit  would  be  guilty  of. 

6.  The  dash  is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of  letters  or 
figures. 

We  then  returned  to  B — ,  where  we  found  Mrs.  A — r  wait- 
ing for  i;s. 

The  winter  of  1865-18GG  was  one  of  the  severest  winters 
on  record. 


PUNCTUATION  443 

Uses  of  Quotation  Marks  : 

1.  Double  quotation  marks  are  used  to  inclose  a  direct 
quotation. 

"  What !  doth  the  wizard  pray,  too  ?  "  quoth  Goodman 
Brown. 

Note.  —  Whenever  a  direct  quotation  is  interrupted  by 
a  statement  which  is  not  a  part  of  the  quotation,  the  quo- 
tation is  closed  before  the  interpolated  words,  then  opened 
again  ;   as, 

"By  the  bye,"  said  the  professor,  looking  uneasily  about 
him,  ''what  singular  fragrance  is  this  in  your  apartment?" 

Note. — Indirect  quotations  are  not  inclosed  in  quota- 
tion marks ;   as, 

He  said  that  he  was  especially  interested  in  the  old  classic 
writers. 

2.  If  a  quotation  consists  of  more  than  one  paragraph, 
quotation  marks  are  used  at  the  beginning  of  each  new 
paragraph,  but  at  the  end  of  the  last  one  only. 

"  First  paragraph  .... 
"  Second  paragraph  .... 
"Third  paragraph  .  .  .  ." 

3.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  inclosed  in  single 
quotation  marks. 

He  replied  indignantly,  "  Only  yesterday  you  said  to  me 
with  emphasis,  '  I  will  not  submit  to  this  tyranny,'  and  to-day 
you  are  espousing  the  cause  of  this  same  tyranny." 

4.  The  title  of  a  book,  newspaper,  or  magazine,  or  the 
name  of  a  sailing  vessel,  may  be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks. 

"  The  Two  Van  Revels  "  was  written  by  Booth  Tarkington. 


444  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

Bryant  was  editor  of  "The  New  York  Evening  Post  "for 

fifty  years. 

A  most  exciting  story  is  running  in  "The  Century." 

"The  City  of  Alpena"  is  one  of  the  largest  steamers  on  the 

Great  Lakes. 

Note.  —  Titles  or  the  names  of  sailing  vessels  are  often 
indicated  by  underlining. 

Uses  of  Parentheses  and  Brackets : 

Parentheses  are  used  to  inclose  explanatory  matter,  or 
expressions  which  are  very  loosely  connected,  logically  or 
grammatically,  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

If  ever  Providence  (but  I  know  it  never  will)  assigns  me  a 
superfluity  of  gold,  part  of  it  shall  be  expended  for  a  service  of 
plate  or  most  delicate  porcelain. 

We  visited  the  Coliseum  (perhaps  I  have  told  3'ou  this 
before)  by  moonlight. 

The  man  is  accused  (and  I  believe  he  is  guilty)  of  heinous 
murder. 

Longfellow  (1807-1882)  was  called  the  "Poet  of  the  People." 

Brackets  are  used  to  denote  matter  that  has  been  inserted 
by  some  person  other  than  the  original  writer. 

During  this  year  [1752]  a  dreadful  massacre  occurred.  The 
city  [Paris]  was  thrown  into  a  state  of  terror  and  confusion. 

For  this  offense  [petit  larceny]  the  judge  fined  the  prisoner 
twenty-five  dollars,  and  sentenced  him  to  thirty  days  in  the 
workhouse. 

Uses  of  the  Apostrophe : 

The  apostrophe  is  used  (1)  to  denote  that  a  noun  is  in  the 
possessive  case  ;   as,  boy's,  men's,  ladies',  Mary's  ; 

(2)  to  denote  the  intentional  omission  of  letters  and  fig- 
ures ;   as,  can't,  don't,  '06 ; 


PUNCTUATION  445 

(3)  to  form  the  plurals  of  letters  and  figures  ;  as,  7's  and 
5's,  or  a,  b,  c's. 

Uses  of  the  Hyphen : 

The  hyphen  is  used  (1)  between  the  members  of  a  com- 
pound word;  as,  fellow-traveler;  (2)  to  denote  the  division 
of  a  word  into  syllables ;   as,  in-ier-vene. 

Uses  of  Italics: 

Italics  (referring  to  a  special  type  used  in  printing,  as 
in  the  following  word  —  South)  are  used  (1)  to  denote 
emphasis  upon  a  word  or  group  of  words  ;  (2)  to  denote 
that  a  word  or  group  of  words  used  in  the  sentence  are  of 
foreign  source;  (o)  to  denote  the  title  of  a  book,  magazine, 
or  essay,  or  the  name  of  a  ship. 

Underlining  a  written  word  or  expression  once  is  equiv- 
alent to  printing  it  in  italics. 

The  student  should  also  think  about  what  he  has  seen  or 
heard. 


This  coup  d'etat  was  a  brilliant  stroke  on  the  part  of  the 
President. 

Shelley's  Prometheus  Unbound  is  the  noblest  of  his  lyrical 
dramas. 

Note  1.  —  Titles  of  books,  essays,  magazines,  etc.,  or 
names  of  ships  may  either  be  inclosed  in  quotation  marks 
or  written  in  italics  (that  is,  underlined  in  written  compo- 
sition). 

Note  2.  —  One  line  under  a  word  indicates  the  same  de- 
gree of  emphasis  as  italics ;  two  lines,  the  same  degree  as 
small  capitals ;  three  lines,  the  same  degree  as  heavy 
capitals. 


446  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 


EXERCISES 

I.  Supply  tlie  proper  punctuation  for  the  following  sen- 
tences^ and  give  rules  for  all  question  marks,  exclamation 
points,  dashes,  and  (potation  marks  used: 

1.  You  say  you  won't  come  (interrogatory  in  ineuuing) 

2.  Alas  that  fiery  spirit  little  knew 

The  change  of  life  the  nothingness  of  power 

3.  0  for  a  lodge  in  some  vast  wilderness 

4.  Oh  such  a  night  so  soft  and  lone 

5.  Oh  sound  there  not  some  strains  of  sadness  there. 

6.  O  vizier  be  it  as  thou  sayest. 

7.  Then  when  all  the  supplies  had  been  gathered  from  the 
fields  we  continued  our  march 

8.  Strange  names  were  over  the  doors  strange  faces  at  the 
windows  everything  was  strange 

9.  He  is  too  but  really  I  can't  express  my  contempt  for  him. 
10.    Children  I  shall  now  tell  no  I  shall  save  that  story  for 

to-morrow. 

II.  Yes  no  I  scarcely  know  what  to  say 

12.  Lincoln  if  it  be  fair  to  make  a  comparison  was  it  seems 
to  me  greater  than  Washington 

13.  You  haven't  heard  the  news  (interrog.) 

14.  You  have  seen  him  then  (interrog.) 

15.  Shakspere  returned  to  Stratford  in  IGIO  (doubtful 
date)  and  lived  there  the  rest  of  his  life 

16.  Young  men  ahoy  the  ra])ids  are  before  you 

17.  Would  that  I  had  died  for  thee  my  son  my  son  Absalom 

18.  Ha  ha  ha  the  joke  is  on  you  my  boy. 

19.  Alas  alas  what  can  I  do. 

20.  He  gasped  gave  one  long  deep  sigh  and  then  was  dead. 

21.  She  sobbed  incoherently  I  don't  like  you  a  single  bit. 

22.  Only  this  morning  she  replied  you  said  I  will  do  any- 
thing for  you  and  now  you  have  betrayed  me. 


PUNCTUATION  447 

23.  Macaulay's  biographer  writes  On  one  occasion  when 
Macaulay  was  eight  years  old  he  accompanied  his  mother  to 
the  home  of  a  neighbor  The  hostess  accidentally  spilled  hot 
tea  on  the  little  boy's  hand  In  reply  to  her  exclamations  of 
regret  the  young  Macaulay  said  in  a  quiet  manner  0  never 
mind  Madam  the  agony  will  soon  be  abated 

II.  Supply  the  necessary  punctuation  for  the  following 
extract  from  Irving^  and  give  rules  for  the  marks  supplied: 

Poor  Mary  at  length  broke  with  a  heavy  sigh  from  his  lips 

And  what  of  her  asked  I  has  anything  happened  to  her 

What  said  he  darting  an  impatient  glance  is  it  nothing  to  be 
reduced  to  this  paltry  situation  to  be  caged  in  a  miserable  cot- 
tage to  be  obliged  to  toil  almost  in  the  menial  concerns  of  her 
wretched  habitation. 

Has  she  then  repined  at  the  change. 

Repined  she  has  been  nothing  but  sweetness  and  good 
humor.  Indeed  she  seems  in  better  spirits  than  I  have  ever 
known  her  she  has  been  to  me  all  love  and  tenderness  and 
comfort. 

Admirable  girl  exclaimed  I.  You  call  yourself  poor  my 
friend  you  never  were  so  rich  you  never  knew  the  boundless 
treasure  of  excellence  you  possess  in  that  woman. 

Oh  but  my  friend  if  this  first  meeting  at  the  cottage  were 
over  I  think  I  could  be  comfortable. 

III.  Give  rules  for  the  pujictuation  marks  used  in  the 
folloiving  paragraph  from  '•'•Rip  Van  Winkle'''' : 

On  waking,  he  found  himself  on  the  green  knoll  whence  he 
had  first  seen  the  old  man  of  the  glen. 

He  rubbed  his  eyes  —  it  was  a  bright  sunny  morning.  The 
birds  were  hopping  and  twittering  among  the  bushes,  and  the 
eagle  was  wheeling  aloft,  and  breasting  the  pure  mountain 
breezes.  "  Surely,"  thought  Rip,  "  I  have  not  slept  here  all 
night."    He  recalled  the  occurrences  before  he  fell  asleep.    The 


448  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

strange  man  with  a  keg  of  liquor  —  the  mountain  ravine — the 
wild  retreat  among  the  rocks  —  the  woe-begone  party  at  nine- 
pins—  the  flagon  —  "Oh,  that  wicked  flagon!  that  wicked 
flagon  I "  thought  Kip  —  "What  excuse  shall  I  make  to  Dame 
Van  Winkle?" 

IV.  Punctuate  the  following  sentences  and  give  rules  for 
the  marks  used : 

1.  And  now  I  begin  to  feel  and  perhaps  should  have  sooner 
felt  that  we  have  talked  enough  of  the  Old  Manse. 

2.  Nevertheless  the  public  if  my  limited  number  of  readers 
whom  I  venture  to  regard  as  a  circle  of  friends  may  be  termed 
a  public  will  receive  them  more  than  kindly  as  the  last  offer- 
ing the  last  collection  of  this  nature  which  it  is  my  purpose 
ever  to  put  forth. 

3.  He  looked  up  to  the  sky  doubting  whether  there  really 
was  a  heaven  above  him  yet  there  was  the  blue  arch  and  the 
stars  brightening  in  it. 

4.  Faith  shouted  Goodman  Brown  in  a  voice  of  agony  and 
desperation  and  the  echoes  of  the  forest  mocked  him  crying 
Faith  Faith. 

5.  While  he  still  gazed  upward  into  the  deep  arch  of  the 
firmament  and  had  lifted  his  hands  to  pray  a  cloud  though 
no  wind  was  stirring  hurried  across  the  zenith  and  hid  the 
brightening  stars. 

6.  Ha  ha  ha  roared  Goodman  Brown  when  the  wind 
laughed  at  him  Let  us  hear  which  will  laugh  loudest  think 
not  to  frighten  me  with  your  deviltry  Come  witch  come  wizard 
come  Indian  pow-wow  come  devil  himself. 

7.  But  such  reflections  were  only  momentary  the  effect  of 
her  character  was  too  real  not  to  make  itself  familiar  at  once. 

8.  She  was  human  her  nature  was  endowed  with  all  gentle 
and  feminine  qualities  she  was  worthiest  to  be  worshiped  she 
was  capable  surely  on  her  part  of  the  height  and  heroism  of 
love. 


PUNCTUATION  449 

9.  She  fled  to  his  side  as  if  they  had  been  playmates  as  if 
they  were  playmates  still. 

10.  As  I  lingered  near  them  for  I  felt  an  inward  attraction 
toward  these  men  my  friend  mentioned  several  of  their  names. 

11.  The  world  has  likewise  heard  those  names  with  some 
it  has  been  familiar  for  years  others  are  daily  making  their 
way  deeper  into  the  universal  heart. 

12.  The  fragrance  of  showers  and  of  new-mown  hay  the 
genial  warmth  of  sunshine  and  the  beauty  of  a  sunset  among 
clouds  the  comfort  and  cheerful  glow  of  the  fireside  the  deli- 
ciousness  of  fruits  and  of  all  good  cheer  all  these  and  innumer- 
able otlier  enjoyable  things  of  earth  must  perish  with  her. 

13.  On  its  top  sat  a  personage  almost  enveloped  in  the 
smoke  and  flame  which  not  to  startle  the  reader  appeared  to 
gush  from  his  own  mouth  and  stomach. 

14.  He  a  musician  how  absurd  he  seldom  strikes  a  true  note. 

V.  Hoiv  should  sentences  constructed  as  follows  he  punctu- 
ated?     Construct  the  sentences  and  punctuate  them. 

1.  A  compound  sentence,  the  members  of  which  are  not 
joined  by  connectives. 

2.  A  compound  sentence  the  members  of  which  are  con- 
nected by  tlierefore,  hence,  consequently,  however,  nevertheless, 
notwithstanding,  also,  moreover,  likewise,  besides. 

3.  A  statement  followed  by  a  series  of  explanatory  words 
phrases  or  clauses. 

4.  A  general  statement  followed  by  an  explanatory  state- 
ment. 

5.  A  sentence  declarative  in  form  but  interrogative  in 
meaning. 

6.  A  sentence  in  which  there  is  a  break  in  thought  or  in 
construction. 

7.  A  sentence  expressing  sudden  or  strong  emotion. 

8.  A  sentence  containing  an  expression  of  doubtful  accu- 
racy. 

2g 


450  COMPOSITION   AXD   RHETORIC 

9.    A  sentence  expressing  deep  irony  or  sarcasm. 
10.    A  sentence  expressing  the  uncontrolled  emotion  which 
is  conveyed  in  broken,  incoherent  speech. 

The  Uses  of  Capital  Letters: 

1.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  of  every  line  of  poetry, 
or  of  every  direct  quotation  should  begin  with  a  capital  let- 
ter. 

There  were  giants  in  those  days. 

Yet  show  her  once,  ye  heavenly  Powers,  One  of  some 
worthier  race  than  ours. 

The  gardener  answered,  "  Yes,  Beatrice,  I  need  your  help." 

2.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  0  are  written  as 
capitals. 

O  damsel,  Hermod  am  I  called,  the  son  of  Odin. 

3.  Proper  names  (1)  of  persons,  places,  and  things.  (2)  of 
great  events  in  history,  (o)  of  great  historical  epochs,  begin 
with  capitals. 

Caroline,  Massachusetts,  Taj  Mahal. 

The  Americans  were  defeated  m  the  Battle  of  Bull  Run. 

Charlemagne  was  the  greatest  ruler  of  the  Middle  Ages. 

4.  Adjectives  and  verbs  derived  from  proper  nouns  should 
begin  with  capital  letters. 

The  English  and  tlie  Egyptian  forces  were  united. 
Missionaries  are  struggling  to  Christianize  China. 

5.  The  words  street,  river,  mountain,  bay,  gulf,  etc.,  when 
used  as  parts  of  proper  names  should  begin  with  capital  let- 
ters. 

Pennsylvania  Street,  Bay  of  Fundy,  Rocky  Mountains,  Nile 
River. 

6.  Titles  of  rank  or  honor  used  appositively  and  preceding 


PUNCTUATION  451 

the  words  which  they  modify  should  begin  with  capital  let- 
ters. 

King  John,  General  Wallace. 

7.  Official  titles  used  formally  should  begin  with  capital 
letters. 

The  Superintendent  of  Schools  requests  the  teachers  to  be 
in  the  city  by  the  4th  of  September. 

Note.  —  Each  part  of  a  compound  title  should  begin 
with  a  capital ;  as, 

Major-General  Brown,  Rear-Admiral  Dewey  of  the  U.  S. 

Navy. 

8.  Personified  names  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

When  Spring  with  dewy  fingers  cold, 
Returns  to  deck  the  hallowed  mold. 

9.  The  names  of  nations,  races,  parties,  and  sects  should 
begin  with  capital  letters. 

Germans,  Ethiopians,  Democrats,  Methodists. 

10.  The  words  north,  south,  east,  and  west  are  capitalized 
when  they  name  sections  of  country.  They  are  not  capital- 
ized when  they  denote  directions. 

The  North  and  the  South  are  becoming  more  closely  united. 
We  traveled  due  north  for  three  days. 

11,  The  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  of  the  months 
of  the  year  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Friday,  October  1. 

Note.  —  The  names  of  the  seasons  do  not  begin  with 
capitals  unless  they  are  personified. 

We  spent  the  winter  in  Florida. 


452  coMrosiTioN  and  rhetoric 

0  Autumn,  why  so  soon  depart 

The  hues  that  make  thy  forests  glad  ? 

12.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with  capi- 
tal letters. 

Ancient  of  days,  Almighty  Father,  All  Wise  Counselor. 

13.  Pronouns  referring  to  the  Deity  should  begin  with 
capital  letters  whenever  the  antecedents  are  not  given,  or 
whenever  their  reference  might  otherwise  be  doubtful. 

Let  every  nation  bow  down  to  Him. 

Come  unto  Me  all  ye  that  are  heavy  laden  and  I  will  give 
you  rest. 

God  gave  his  only  begotten  Son  (antecedent  given). 

14.  All  prominent  or  important  words  in  the  titles  of 
books,  magazines,  or  essays  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Alice  of  Old  Vincennes. 
Heroes  and  Ilero-Worship. 

15.  The  words  father,  mother,  sister,  and  other  nouns  de- 
noting kinship,  used  as  parts  of  proper  nouns,  should  begin 
with  capital  letters.  They  should  also  begin  with  capital 
letters  when  used  alone  as  proper  nouns. 

Sister  Alice,  Uncle  James,  Cousin  I\[aud,  Father  Brown. 
I  received  a  beautiful  gift  from  Mother.     Did  you  know  that 
Father  sent  me  a  check  ? 

Note. — Nouns  denoting  kinship,  used  alone  and  pre- 
ceded by  the  j)ossessive  pronoun  ??i?/  or  by  the  article  the, 
a,  or  an,  should  not  begin  with  capital  letters  ;  as, 

I  have  not  heard  from  my  uncle  lately. 
The  brother  whom  you  met  has  gone  abroad. 


PUNCTUATION  453 


EXERCISES 


I.  Bring  to  class  three  exercises  illustrating  each  of  the 
preceding  rules  for  the  uses  of  capitals. 

II.  Supply  the  necessary  capitals  in  tlie  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  Early  one  friday  morning  in  noveuiber  we  visited  the 
coliseum  at  rome. 

2.  The  autumn  skies  of  italy  are  even  more  beautiful  than 
those  of  summer. 

3.  So  rest,  forever  rest,  o  princely  pair,  in  your  high  church 
mid  the  still  mountain  air. 

4.  She  earnestly  inquired  what  grievous  affliction  hath  be- 
fallen you. 

5.  Many  foreigners  soon  became  americanized. 

6.  San  francisco  the  greatest  city  in  the  west  is  situated 
west  of  the  sierra  nevada  mountains. 

7.  My   father   and   mother  are   visiting   uncle    george   in 
denver. 

8.  I  entreated   my  sister  to  intercede  with  father  in  my 
behalf. 

9.  People  are  rapidly  losing  faith  in  czar  nicholas  II,  the 
emperor  of  russia. 

10.  The  sultan  of  turkey  is  sometimes  called  the  sick  man 
of  europe. 

11.  The  commander-in-chief  of  the  american  army,  the 
president  of  the  united  states,  has  issued  a  call  upon  the 
governor  of  Indiana  for  ten  thousand  troops. 

12.  The  battle  of  Waterloo,  one  of  the  greatest  events  of 
the  modern  age,  resulted  in  the  overthrow  of  napoleon. 

13.  Marmion  :  a  tale  of  flodden  field.  My  lady  peggy  goes 
to  town.  The  voice  of  the  scholar.  The  house  of  a  thousand 
candles. 

14.  Charlemagne  was  the  greatest  emperor  of  the  middle 
ages. 


454  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

15.    Ere  the  parting  hour  go  by 

Quick,  thy  tablets,  memory  ! 
10.    Then  comes  spring,  bearing  fresh  garlands  in  her  hands 
17.    0  thou  that  bringest  good  tidings. 

The  all  gracious  father. 

To  him  who  gave  us  his  only  begotten  son. 

Praise  him  all  ye  people. 

Take  up  thy  cross  and  follow  me. 


CHAPTER  XI 

COMMON   ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR 

It  is  the  special  aim  of  rhetoric  to  secure  effectiveness 
in  speaking  and  in  writing.  An  expression  which  vio- 
lates good  use  as  determined  by  the  rules  and  principles 
of  grammar,  cannot  be  effective.  A  review,  then,  of  some 
of  these  principles  and  a  discussion  of  some  of  the  solecisms 
which  hinder  effectiveness,  will  be  helpful  to  the  pupil 
in  his  writing. 

These  errors  may  be  divided  into  two  classes  :  (1)  those 
arising  -from  an  ignorance  of  syntax,  which  treats  of  cor- 
rect sentence  structure ;  (2)  those  arising  from  an  igno- 
rance of  the  inflected  forms  of  the  different  parts  of  speech. 

The  principal  solecisms  coming  under  the  first  class  are  : 

(1)  Errors  in  the  case  of  nouns  and  pronouns ;  as. 

The  boy  who  (whom)  they  knew  to  be  reliable,  was  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  division. 

(2)  Lack  of  agreement  (a)  between  verbs  and  their 
subjects ;  as. 

All  means  of  escape  was  (were)  cut  off. 

(5)  Between  pronouns  and  their  antecedents  ;  as, 

Let  every  pupil  study  their  (his)  lesson. 

(c)  Between  adjectives  that  are  inflected  for  number 
("this"  and  "that")  and  the  words  which  they  modify ;  as, 

455 


456  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

These  (this)  kind  of  sentences  is  difficult  to  classify. 

(8)  Violation  of  rules  for  sequence  of  tense ;  as, 

If  you  should  consult  him,  I  am  sure  that  he  will  (would) 
give  you  an  honest  opinion. 

(4)  Confusion  of  one  part  of  speech  with  anotlier ;  as, 

Most  (almost)  every  one  is  in  favor  of  a  change. 
They  arrived  safely  (safe). 

(o)  Confusion  of  transitive  with  intransitive  verbs  ;  as, 
He  laid  (lay)  down  to  rest. 

(6)  Confusion  of  principal  parts  of  verbs ;  as, 
He  seen  (saw)  the  parade. 

(7)  Incorrect  uses  of  connectives ;  as, 

The  general  ordered  the  lieutenant  to  advance,  which  he  did 
(The  general  ordered  the  lieutenant  to  advance,  an  order  which 
the  officer  obeyed). 

Coming  under  the  second  class  of  solecisms  are  forms  of 
nouns,  pronouns,  verbs,  adjectives,  and  adverbs  which  vio- 
late rules  for  the  inflection  of  these  parts  of  speech ;  as, 

Mens'  for  men's;  ladle's  for  ladies';  cargos  for  cargoes  ;  it's 
for  its;  his'n  for  his;  ain't  for  are  nut;  more  handsome  for 
handsomer. 

ERRORS    IN    CASE 

Case  of  Nouns.  ^  Since  the  noun  has  onl}-  two  case  forms, 
the  iioniiiialivi'  and  the  })()ssessive,  few  errors  in  case  are 
likely  to  arise  in  its  use.  One  error,  however,  is  very  com- 
mon ;  namely,  the  use  of  the  objective  case  before  the 
gerund  or  participial  infinitive.     In  the  sentence, 

"  I  had  not  dreamed  of  Mary  doing  anything  so  rash," 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        457 

"Mary"  is  incorrectly  used  for  "Mary's."  The  error  is 
due  to  the  writer's  failure  to  recognize  that  "  doing,"  not 
"  Mary,"  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  "  of."  Whenever 
the  present  participial  form  of  the  verb  is  used  as  a  gerund 
or  as  an  infinitive  in  "ing"  (sometimes  called  the  par- 
ticipial infinitive),  it  should  take  before  it  the  possessive, 
not  the  objective,  case. 

Note.  —  Whenever  the  present  participial  form  of  the 
verb  is  used  as  a  noun,  but  still  retains  its  verb  nature 
sufficiently  to  take  the  modifiers  of  the  verb,  it  becomes  a 
gerund  or  participial  infinitive.  The  gerund  differs  from 
the  verbal  noun  in  that  it  may  take  the  same  modifiers 
that  the  verb  takes ;  the  verbal  noun  is  "  noun  "  not  only 
in  use  but  also  in  nature;  it  may  take  only  the  modifiers 
of  a  noun. 

Gerund.  —  His  reading  the  lesson  so  carefully  was  what 
secured  him  the  promotion. 

"Reading"  is  a  gerund  in  this  sentence,  because  it  is 
the  present  participial  form  of  the  verb  used  as  a  noun 
(as  subject  of  the  verb  "was").  It  is  still  closely  related 
in  nature  to  the  verb  (as  is  proved  by  the  objective  and 
the  adverbial  modifiers  which  follow). 

Verbal  noun.  —  The  reading  of  the  lesson  occupied  a  brief 
time. 

In  this  sentence  "  reading  "  is  a  verbal  noun.  Unlike 
the  gerund,  it  can  take  only  adjective  modifiers. 

Case  of  Pronouns.  —  Errors  in  case  frequently  arise  in 
the  use  of  the  personal  pronouns  Z,  thou.,  Ae,  she,  we,  and 
they.,  and  in  the  use  of  the  relative  pronouns,  who,  who- 
soever, and  whoever.  The  reason  for  this  is,  that  these 
pronouns,  unlike  nouns,  have  different  forms  for  the  nomi- 
native and  the  objective  cases.     Thus  in  the  construction 


458  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

of  a  sentence,  a  writer  or  a  speaker  must  hold  in  mind  the 
relations  of  these  pronouns  to  other  words  in  the  sentence, 
and  he  must  use  the  forms  which  denote  these  relations. 
He  may  say  without  fear  of  error, 

"  The  teacher  praised  Mary  and  George." 

In  the  use  of  the  nouns  "  Mary  "  and  "  George  "  he  is 
not  compelled  to  consider  whether  he  is  using  proper 
forms  to  denote  the  objective  case.  Should  he  sub- 
stitute pronouns  for  "  Mary "  and  '•  George,"  he  would 
have  to  remember  that  special  forms  of  these  pronouns 
denote  the  objective  case  ;  otherwise  he  might  say, 

The  teacher  praised  he  and  she, 
for 

The  teacher  praised  him  and  her. 

We  can  overcome  such  errors  only  by  considering  the 
relations  of  pronouns,  wliich  are  inflected  for  the  objective 
as  well  as  for  the  nominative  and  the  possessive  cases,  to 
other  words  in  the  sentence. 

Some  of  the  common  errors  in  the  case  of  pronouns  are 
illustrated  in  the  following  examples : 

1.  He  suggested  an  excellent  plan  to  Florence  and  I  (me). 

"  I "  is  incorrect,  because,  being,  like  "  Florence,"  the 
object  of  the  preposition  "  to,"  the  pronoun  should  be  in 
the  objective  case. 

2.  She  was  more  cowardly  than  him  (he)  (than  he  was 
cowardly). 

"Him"  is  incorrect,  because,  being  the  subject  of  a 
clause  understood  (not  the  object  of  "  than  ")  the  pronoun 
should  be  in  the  nominative  case. 

Note.  —  In  such  constructions  some  grammarians  sane- 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN  GRAMMAR  450 

tion  the  use  of  "than"  as  a  preposition,  but  the  majority 
of  them  regard  it  as  a  conjunction. 

3.  Mother  always  treated  Harry  better  than  I  (me)  (than 
she  treated  me). 

"  I  "  is  incorrect,  because  the  pronoun  following  "  than  " 
should  be  in  the  objective  case,  object  of  the  verb  "treated  " 
understood. 

4.  After  a  little  guessing,  we  decided  that  it  was  him  (he). 
"  Him  "  is  incorrect,  because  a  pronoun  completing  the 

finite  form  of  the  verb  "  to  be  "  should  be  in  the  nominative 
case. 

5.  They  believed  the  burglar  to  be  he  (him). 

"  He  "  is  incorrect,  because  a  pronoun  completing  the 
infinitive  "to  be"  used  with  a  subject  should  be  in  the 
objective  case. 

Note. — The  verb  "to  be"  takes  the  same  case  after  it 
as  before. 

6.  My  friend,  whom  (who)  I  hoped  would  give  me  some 
assistance,  disappointed  me. 

"  Whom  "  is  incorrect,  because,  being  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "  would  give,"  the  relative  pronoun  should  be  in  the 
nominative  case.  It  is  not,  as  the  careless  student  is  likely 
to  think,  the  object  of  the  verb  "hoped."  The  clause  "I 
hoped"  is  used  parenthetically,  and  hence  should  not  affect 
the  structure  of  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

7.  The  cashier  who  (whom)  we  all  believed  to  be  reliable 
has  proved  to  be  dishonest. 

"Who"  is  incorrect,  because,  being  the  subject  of  the 
infinitive  "to  be"  (not  the  object  of  the  verb  "believed"), 
the  relative  pronoun  should  be  in  the  objective  case.     The 


460  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

object  of  the  verb  "believed"  is  the  phrase,  "whom  to  be 
reliable." 

Note. — Remember  that  the  subject  of  the  infinitive  is 
always  in  the  objective  case. 

8.  A  crowd  of  girls  and  myself  (I)  decided  to  spend  the 
afternoon  at  the  park. 

9.  The  blame  all  falls  upon  Helen  and  yourself  (you). 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  "mj^self,"  "yourself," 
"herself,"  etc.,  may  be  used  either  in  a  reflexive  sense  to 
refer  to  the  subjects  of  the  clauses  in  which  they  stand,  or 
in  an  intensive  sense  to  emphasize  the  nouns  or  pronouns 
which  they  accompany.  As  reflexives  they  can  be  used 
only  in  the  objective  case  as  objects  of  verbs  or  preposi- 
tions ;  as. 

He  made  himself  sick ; 
or. 

She  took  all  this  to  herself. 

As  intensives  they  may  be  used,  not  as  subjects  or 
objects,  but  as  appositive  modifiers  of  nouns  or  pronouns 
in  the  nominative  or  in  the  objective  case ;  as, 

You,  yourself,  told  me  so ; 
or, 

Then  she  told  the  king,  himself,  her  sorrowful  story. 
10.    Why  do  you  object  to  me  (my)  being  here  ? 

"Me"  is  incorrect  because  the  gerund  "being"  (not 
the  pronoun)  is  the  object  of  the  proposition  "to."  liy 
substituting  the  noun  "presence"  for  the  equivalent  phrase 
"  being  here,"  we  can  easily  see  the  absurdity  of  using  the 
objective  form  before  the  gerund  ;  as, 

Why  do  you  object  to  me  (my)  presence  ? 


COMMON  ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  461 

EXERCISES 

I.  Insert  proper  forms  of  personal  pronouns  in  the  blanks 
lift  in  the  following  sentences.  Use  pronouns  of  the  first  or 
third  person. 

1.  Honors  were  equally  divided  between and -. 

2.  Mary  and were  the  only  ones  permitted  to  enter. 

3.  The  custodian  permitted  Harvey  and to  enter. 

4.  May  Walter  and go  to  the  theater  ? 

5.  Please  let  Walter  and go  to  the  theater. 

6.  We  were    surprised  to  find  that  it   was who    had 

accomplished  all  this. 

7.  If  I  were 1  would  not  undertake  so  much. 

8.  If  you  were what  would  you  do  ? 

9.  I  knew  all  the  time  that  it  was . 

10.  They  wished  Irene  and to  be  present. 

II.  Marie  is  more  studious  than . 

12.  Father  praised  her  more  than . 

13.  Had  you  thought  of  its  being ? 

Note. —Remember  that  "being"  in  tins  sentence  is  a 
gerund  with  a  possessive  modifier,  not  an  infinitive  with 
a  subject.  The  gerund  of  "  to  be  "  is  completed  by  the 
nominative  form  of  the  pronoun. 

14.  How  would  you  like  to  be  (he  or  him)  ? 

Note.  —  The  infinitive  "to  be,"  used  as  a  complementary 
infinitive,  is,  like  the  gerund,  and  like  the  finite  form  of 
the  verb  "  to  be,"  completed  by  the  nominative  form  of 
the  jDronoun. 

15.  I  fully  expected  the  visitor  to  be . 

Note  that  the  infinitive  "  to  be  "  has  a  subject. 

11.  Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  for  m  of  ivho,  ivlioever, 
or  tvhosoever. 


462  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

In  determining  the  form  to  he  used,  remember  that  the  case 
of  the  relative  never  depends  upon  any  word  in  the  indepen- 
dent clause,  but  that  it  belonys  to  some  verb  or  preposition  in 
the  clause  which  it  introduces. 

1.    do  you  think  T  am  ? 

2.  Let  the  severest  punishment  be  visited  upon violates 

his  oath. 

3.  The  physician we  trusted  would  effect  an  immedi- 
ate cure  was  baffled  by  the  case. 

4.  The   stranger 1  took  to  be   my  long-lost  brother, 

proved  to  be  only  a  worthless  tramp. 

5.   do  you  suppose  they  elected  chairman  of  the  com- 
mittee ? 

6.    did  you  take  him  to  be? 

7.    were  the  members  of  the  committee  supposed  to  be  ? 

8.  She  is  one  of  the  girls they  say  are  to  be  married 

soon. 

9.    do  you  think  I  resemble  ? 

10.  I  saw  the  man you  described. 

11.  I  offer  this  reward  to is  willing  to  take  the  risk. 

12.  I  am  willing  to  choose the  rest  of  you  approve. 

13.  The    speaker they   expected    to    be    present,    was 

detained  by  an  accident. 

14.  He  suggested should  be  invited. 

15.  He  told  me he  wished  to  appoint. 

III.  Criticise  the  use  of  the  pronouns  compounded  ivith 
self  in  the  following  sentences.     Seepage  460. 

1.  A  few  friends   and   myself   were  spending  a  pleasant 
afternoon  on  the  ice  pond. 

2.  All  the  credit  belongs  to  yourself ;  none,  to  me. 

3.  The  lecturer  addressed  all  his  remarks  to  myself. 

4.  Myself  and  wife  will  be  with  you  to-morroAV. 

5.  I  should  be  pleased  to  have  yourself  and  your  friend 
take  dinner  with  me. 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN  GRAMMAR  463 

IV.  Justify  the  use  of  the  reflexive  arid  the  intensive  pro- 
nouns in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  I  have  taken  upon  myself  the  liberty  of  investigating 
this  matter. 

2.  The  captain  of  the  team  took  all  the  credit  to  himself. 

3.  Even  the  judge,  himself,  wept  as  he  listened  to  the 
prisoner's  story. 

4.  Your  punishment  is  deserved,  as  you,  yourself,  must  admit. 

5.  The  palmer  was  heard  muttering  to  himself. 

6.  In  penance,  they  inflicted  many  injuries  upon  themselves. 

7.  He  made  no  obeisance  to  any  one;  not  even  to  the 
emperor,  himself. 

ERRORS   IN    AGREEMENT 

Number  Forms  of  Pronouns.  —  The  laws  of  grammar  de- 
mand not  only  that  special  forms  of  personal  pronouns 
be  used  to  indicate  their  case  relations  to  the  nouns  which 
they  modif3%  or  to  the  verbs  and  prepositions  to  which 
they  belong,  but  also  that  special  forms  be  used  to  indi- 
cate their  number  relation  to  the  substantives  for  which 
they  stand.  A  pronoun  representing  a  singular  suhstanfive 
must  be  singular;  a  pronoun  represeyiting  a  plural  substantive 
must  be  plural. 

Violations  of  this  rule  are  usually  due  : 

(1)  To  a  tendency  to  lose  sight  of  the  real  antecedents, 
and  thus  to  associate  the  pronouns  with  substantives  near- 
est them  in  position  ;   as, 

Whenever  one  of  my  friends  starts  on  a  journey  abroad,  I 
ask  them  (him)  to  send  me  a  souvenir  card. 

In  this  sentence  the  pronoun  is  falsely  associated  with  the 
substantive  "  friends  "  rather  than  with  its  real  antecedent 
"one." 


464  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

(2)  To  a  failure  to  discern  the  real  number  of  the  ante- 
cedent which  the  pronoun  rej)resents.  For  instance,  plural 
pronouns  are  often  incorrectly  used  to  represent  singular 
substantives,  such  as  each,  every,  either,  neither  (or  sub- 
stantives modified  by  these  words),  because,  to  the  care- 
less mind,  these  words  unconsciously  convey  plural  ideas. 
Again,  singular  pronouns  are  often  incorrectly  used  to 
represent  collective  nouns  which  are  plural  in  meaning. 
A  collective  noun  is  plural  when  the  sense  of  the  sentence 
in  which  it  is  used  is  such  that  the  noun  conveys  a  plural 
image  ;  it  is  singular  when  the  sense  of  the  sentence  is 
such  that  the  noan  conveys  a  singular  image.  In  other 
words,  when  a  collective  noun  is  so  used  that  the  individual 
idea  in  it  is  made  more  prominent  than  the  collective  idea, 
the  noun  is  plural ;  when  it  is  so  used  that  the  collective 
idea  is  made  more  prominent  tlian  the  individual  idea,  the 
noun  is  singular.      In  the  sentence, 

The  mob  clapped  its  hands  wildly, 

the  pronoun  "  its"  is  incorrectly  used  for  "  their"  ;  for  the 
antecedent  "mob"  necessarily  conve3"s  a  plural  idea.  It 
is  impossible  to  conceive  of  "  hands  "  as  belonging  to  the 
mob  ;  we  must  think  of  them  as  belonging  to  the  separate 
individuals  who  compose  the  mob.  Hence,  the  sentence 
should  read. 

The  mob  clapped  their  liauds  wildly. 

On  the  other  hand,  in  the  sentence, 

The  mob  blindly  followed  their  leader, 

"their  "  is  incorrectly  used  for  "  its"  ;  for  we  now  think  of 
the  mob  as  a  single  body,  and  not  of  the  individuals  who 
compose  the  body.  The  leader  belongs  not  to  the  separate 
men,  but  to  the  whole  group  of  men  who  make  up  the  mob. 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN  GRAMMAR  465 

Number  Forms  of  Verbs. —  Errors  in  the  number  forms  of 
verbs  are  due  either  to  a  failure  to  recognize  the  real 
subjects  of  verbs,  or  to  the  failure  to  discern  the  true 
number  of  the  subjects  to  which  the  verbs  belong.  The 
following  examples  illustrate  some  of  the  common  errors 
in  the  number  forms  of  verbs  : 

1.  A  basket  of  beautiful  flowers  were  (was)  presented  to  the 
teacher. 

The  error  is  due  to  the  tendency  to  associate  the  verb  with 
the  noun  nearest  it  in  position;  "basket,"  not  "flowers," 
is  the  real  subject  of  the  verb. 

2.  The  house,  together  with  its  contents,  were  (was)  sold  at 
auction. 

The  error  is  due  to  a  disposition  to  regard  as  a  part  of 
the  real  subject  such  parenthetical  expressions  as  are  in- 
troduced by  the  phrases  along  with,  together  u>ith,  in  addition 
to,  as  well  as,  etc. 

3.  The  committee  was  (were)  not  unanimous  in  its  (their) 
decision. 

"Was"  and  "its"  are  incorrect,  because  the  lack  of 
unanimity  on  the  part  of  the  different  members  of  the  com- 
mittee makes  the  idea  conveyed  by  the  collective  noun 
"  committee  "  a  plural  idea.  In  this  sentence,  we  neces- 
sarily think  of  the  separate  members  who  compose  the 
committee  rather  than  of  the  committee  as  a  single  body. 

4.  Neither  Alice  nor  her  mother  were  (was)  invited. 

When  each  of  the  members  of  a  compound  subject  con- 
nected by  either  —  or,  neither — nor,  is  singular,  the  subject 
is  singular  and  must  take  a  singular  verb.  When  the 
members  of  the  compound  subject  differ  in  number,  the 
verb  agrees  with  the  member  nearest  it  in  position ;  as, 
2h 


466  COMPO.SITKJX    A\D    RHETORIC 

Neither  prayers  nor  entreaty  moves  liim  ; 
or, 

Either  Mary  or  some  of  the  other  members  of  the  family 
expect  to  be  present. 

Number  Forms  of  Adjectives.— TAt's  and  that,  the  only 
adjectives  that  are  intlected  for  number,  must  agree  in 
number  with  the  substantives  which  they  modify.  This 
rule  is  violated  only  when  these  adjectives  are  used  before 
such  words  as  kind,  class,  and  sort,  or  before  words  which, 
like  molasses,  are  plural  in  form  but  singular  in  mean  in  o-. 

Notes  and  Warnings.  —  Remember  that  the  distributive 
adjectives  each  and  ever^/,  and  tlie  alternative  adjectives 
either  and  neither,  make  the  substantives  which  they  modify 
singular;  also  that  these  adjectives  when  used  substan- 
tively are  represented  by  singular  pronouns. 

In  determining  the  number  of  pronouns  be  careful  (1)  to 
ascertain  the  real  antecedents  ;  (2)  to  determine  whether 
the  antecedents  are  singular  or  plural. 

Remember,  likewise,  that  a  collective  noun  is  singular 
when  it  conveys  the  image  of  a  single  group  without  ref- 
erence to  the  individuals  in  the  group  ;  that  it  is  plural 
when  it  conveys  an  image  of  the  individuals  in  a  group 
rather  than  of  the  group  itself. 

In  determining  the  number  of  verbs,  be  careful  (1)  to 
ascertain  the  real  subjects  ;  (2)  to  determine  whether  the 
number  of  the  subjects  is  singular  or  plural. 

Remember  that  parenthetical  expressions  introduced  by 
such  phrases  as  together  with,  in  company  with,  in  addition 
to,  as  well  as,  etc.,  do  not  form  a  part  of  the  grammatical 
subject,  and  hence  do  not  affect  the  number  of  verbs. 

Remember,  also,  that  a  collective  noun  takes  a  singular 
or  a  plural  verb  according  as  the  noun  is  made  singular  or 
plural  by  its  use  in  the  sentence. 


COMMON  ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  467 

The  word  all  is  singular  when  it  is  equivalent  to  every- 
thing;  it  is  plural  when  it  is  used  in  a  numerical  sense  ;  as, 
'^All  is  ready"  or  "All  were  present." 

EXERCISES 

I.  hisert  the  proper  form  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  each 
of  the  following  blanks : 

1.  The  greatest  care  consistent  with use  should  be  em- 
ployed in  the  operation  of  mining  derricks. 

2.  Everybody  declared in  favor  of  the  motion. 

3.  The  relation  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  to  other  words  in 
the  sentence  determines case. 

4.  Let  each  of  us  remember  how  much may  contribute 

to  the  welfare  of own  city. 

5.  An  organization  composed  of  conscientious  citizens  can 
do  much  through influence  to  counteract  the  evils  of  graft. 

6.  Neither  Thornton  nor  Edna  would  admit  that was 

wrong. 

Note.  —  When  singular  antecedents  of  pronouns  are  of 
the  common  gender,  or  when  singular  antecedents  of  dif- 
ferent genders  are  connected  by  or  or  7ior,  the  pronouns 
representing  these  antecedents  should  be  masculine  pro- 
nouns of  the  third  person,  singular  number ;   for  example, 

Everybody  should  be  prepared  to  state  his  opinion  fully. 
Neither  Mary  nor  John  was  able  to  bring  up  his  work. 

The  last  sentence  might  read, 

Neither  Mary  nor  John  was  able  to  bring  up  his  or  her  work, 

but  the  use  of  the  two  pronouns  is  awkward. 

7.  Whoever  committed  the  murder  should  be  made  to  suffer 
for crime. 


468  COMPOSITIOX   AXD    RHETORIC 

8.  If  anybody  ever  revealed  the  secrets  of  this  society 

suddenly   disappeared   and   no  one   ever    knew   what   became 
of . 

9.  Many  an  American  soldier  gave life  for country 

in  the  late  Civil  War. 

10.  He  is  one  of  those  men  who  always  become  angry  if 
any  one  opposes . 

11.  The  congregation   has   employed minister  for   the 

coming  year. 

12.  The  committee  hoped  to  receive  a  large  donation;  but 
received  only  ten  dollars. 

13.  The  Civic  Improvement  Society  through  the  zeal  of  its 
members  has  done  much  toward  making  our  city  beautiful, 
and (expects  or  expect?)  to  do  more  in  the  fviture. 

14.  The  jury  disagreed  in opinion  of  capital  punishment. 

15.  Let  every  person  interested  iu  the  measures  proposed 
give  them cordial  support. 

II.  Insert  in  each  blank  a  suigular  or  a  plural  verb,  and 
give  reason  for  the  form  used  : 

1.    A  careful  study  of  the  rules  and  principles  of  grammar 
necessary  to  a  proper  understanding  of  rhetoric. 


2.  The  sound  of  waters  rushing  through  the  crevices  of 
the  rocks heard  at  a  great  distance. 

3.  The  resolutions  adopted   by  the  Northern   Ministerial 

Association that  a  great  advance  is  being  made  in  religious 

matters. 

4.  A  barrel  of  new  potatoes brought  to  the  house  this 

morning. 

5.  The    family divided   in    (its    or   their?)    political 

opinions. 

G.    One   of    the   views   that   impressed   me   most the 

St.  Clair  Flats. 

7.  A  crowd  of  men,  women,  and  children  (was  or  were?) 
running  iu  every  direction. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        469 

8.  The  audience in  tears. 

9.  Neither    persuasion    nor   entreaty heeded    by   the 

stubborn  boy. 

10.  The  recommendation  made  by  the  various  members  of 

the   different    fraternities at    last    adopted    by   the   Pan 

Hellenic  Society. 

11.  The  number  of  students  enrolled rapidly  in- 
creasing. 

12.  A  number  of    horsemen seen   approaching  from  a 

distant  hill. 

13.  The  crowd orderly. 

14.  This  attack,  together  with  other  demonstrations  of 
violence, the  immediate  cause  of  war. 

15.  Hannibal  with  all    his   soldiers forced   to    retreat 

into  Spain. 

16.  This  bill  along  with  a  number  of  other  measures 

vetoed  by  the  president. 

17.  Each  of  the  boys assigned  to  a  position  in  the  rear 

of  the  stage. 

18.  Neither  of  the  horses able  to  continue  the  journey. 

19.  All  that  medical  skill  can  do been  done  to  relieve 

the  patient. 

20.  All satisfied  with  the  results. 

21.  She  is  one  of  those  conscientious  girls  who always 

looking  out  for  the  welfare  of  others. 

III.  Look  \(p  the  number  of  the  foUoimng  nouns,  and  use 
them  in  sentences  as  subjects  of  verbs :  athletics^  ethics^  neivs, 
politics,   tnatheniatics,    measles^    iniUHjis,     trtinips. 

ERRORS  IN  THE  USES  OF  THE  VERB 
ERRORS  IN  TENSE 

Errors  in  tense  are  usually  due  to  a  failure  to  discern 
the  real  time  relation  which  exists  either  between  the 
verbs  in  compound  or  in  complex  sentences,  or  between 


470  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

verbs  and  their  complementary  infinitives.  Since  sequence 
of  tense  is  a  matter  of  relation,  no  hard  and  fast  rules 
for  the  governing  of  tense  forms  can  be  laid  down.  Two 
principles,  however,  relating  to  sequence  of  tense  must 
be  kept  in  mind  :  first,  that  the  tenses  of  verbs  in  com- 
pound and  in  complex  sentences  should  be  the  same  unless 
there  is  a  change  in  the  point  of  time  ;  second,  that,  where 
there  is  a  change  in  the  point  of  time,  the  tense  forms 
must  be  in  accord  ;  that  is,  such  tense  forms  must  be  used 
as  will  express  the  exact  time  relation.  Some  of  the 
common  errors  in  tense  are  illustrated  in  the  following 
examples  : 

1.  Marnuon  was  annoyed  at  the  question  put  to  him  by  Sir 
Hugh,  but  with  supreme  effort  he  controls  (controlled)  himself 
and  makes  (made)  a  calm  reply. 

Since  the  time  referred  to  in  both  clauses  is  the  same, 
there  is  no  reason  why  the  tense  of  the  verbs  in  the  second 
statement  should  differ  from  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the 
first  clause.  The  error  is  likely  due  to  an  awkward  at- 
tempt to  use  tlie  "historical  present "  tense.  By  "histor- 
ical present "  we  mean  the  use  of  the  present  tense  to 
express,  vividly,  a  past  action.  This  tense  form  often 
serves  an  important  purpose  in  exciting  narration  ;  but, 
as  only  the  skillful  writer  knows  how  to  employ  it  effect- 
ively, it  is  better  for  the  young  writer  to  avoid  its  use. 

2.  If  he  were  not  so  careless,  he  would  have  been  promoted. 

Since  both  verbs  refer  to  the  same  time  in  the  past,  the 
sentence  shoidd  read. 

If  he  had  not  been  so  careless,  he  would  have  been  pro- 
moted. 

The  person's  carelessness  now  could  not  affect  his  standing 
in  the  past. 


COMMON  ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  471 

3.  Whoever  dishonors  the  flag,  has  declared  (declares)  him- 
self a  traitor. 

"  Has  declared "  is  wrong,  because  the  verbs  in  both 
clauses  refer  to  the  same  time. 

Note.  —  Truths  of  a  general  nature  are  usually  ex- 
pressed in  the  present  tense. 

4.  If  he  should  be  elected,  he  will  (would)  fill  the  position 
creditably. 

"  Will "  is  incorrect,  because  the  tense  of  a  verb  in  the 
subordinate  clause  of  a  conditional  sentence  must  accord 
with  the  tense  of  the  verb  in  the  main  clause.  "  Shall " 
or  "  will "  in  the  dependent  clause  must  usually  be  fol- 
lowed by  "  shall  "  or  "  will  "  in  the  independent  clause  ; 
"  should "  or  "  would "  must  usually  be  followed  by 
"should"  or  "would." 

5.  We  hoped  to  have  arrived  (to  arrive)  in  time  for  the 
morning  service. 

"  To  have  arrived  "  is  incorrect,  because  the  infinitive 
denotes  an  action  which  is  present  in  its  relation  to  the 
time  of  the  main  verb.  It  is  impossible  to  hope  for  some- 
thing to  happen  in  the  past. 

A  hope,  a  wish,  mi  intention,  or  an  expectation  can  he 
fulfilled  only  in  the  present  or  in  the  future  ;  hence  verbs 
of  wishing,  hoping,  intending,  or  expecting  cannot  properly 
he  completed  hy  the  perfect  infinitive  ;  they  must  always  he 
completed  by  the  present  infinitive. 

6.  He  would  like  to  have  gone. 

In  this  sentence  the  infinitive  is  incorrectly  made  to  ex- 
press the  time  which  the  main  verb  is  intended  to  express. 
The  desire  to  go  is  past,  not  present;    but  the  "going" 


472  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

itself  is  present  in  relation  to  the  desire.     Hence  the  sen 
tence  should  read, 

He  would  have  liked  to  go. 

7.    I  am  sorry  to  have  missed  you. 

This  sentence  is  correct  because  the  time  expressed  by 
the  infinitive  is  past  in  relation  to  the  time  of  the  main 
verb.  It  is  possible  to  be  sorry  now  for  something  which 
has  happened  in  the  past.  It  would  be  equally  correct  to 
say, 

I  was  sorry  to  miss  you  ; 
or, 

I  was  sorry  to  have  missed  you. 

In  all  these  sentences  the  infinitives  express  the  real 
time  relation  which  exists  between  them  and  the  verbs 
upon  which  they  depend. 

The  infinitive  expresses  time  only  relativeh/.  The  present 
infinitive  expresses  an  action^  beitig,  or  state  which  is  jrresent^ 
in  its  relation  to  the  past,  present,  or  future;  as, 

I  was  glad  to  see  you. 
I  shall  be  glad  to  see  you. 

T/ie  jjerfect  infinitive  expresses  an  action,  being,  or  state 
which  is  past  in  its  relation  to  the  past,  present,  or  future;  as, 

I  am  pleased  to  have  accomplished  this. 
I  was  pleased  to  have  accomplished  this. 
I  shall  be  pleased  to  have  accomplished  this. 

EXERCISE 

Criticise  incorrect  tense  forms  of  verbs  and  infinitives  in 
the  following  sentences  : 

Note.  —  A  general  truth  is  usually  expressed  in  the 
present  tense. 


COMMON  ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  473 

1.  If  President  Hay  should  accept  the  position  offered  him 
in  this  college,  he  will  be  cordially  received  by  the  students. 

2.  Then  Rustuni  recognizes  Sohrab,  and  as  he  gazed  upon 
the  face  of  his  dying  son  his  heart  filled  with  anguish. 

3.  He  is  a  boy  who  could  always  be  trusted,  for  he  never 
deceives  any  one. 

4.  When  I  leave  high  school,  I  shall  enter  a  training  school 
for  nurses  ;  then  if  misfortune  should  come,  I  shall  be  prepared 
for  it. 

5.  If  I  had  been  well,  I  should  have  been  glad  to  have  been 
with  you. 

6.  The  Russians  hoped  to  have  defeated  the  Japanese  in  the 
early  part  of  the  war. 

7.  He  expected  to  have  settled  the  matter  long  ago. 

8.  We  were  willing  to  have  done  anything  to  bring  about 
peace. 

9.  I  saw  an  inscription  on  the  Bunker  Hill  Monument,  but  I 
cannot  remember  what  it  said. 

10.  The  lecturer  cited  many  scientific  facts  which,  he  said, 
proved  that  the  North  Pole  was  inhabited. 

SHALL  AND    WILL 

The  simple  uses  of  shall  and  will  in  direct  statements  are 
pretty  generally  understood.  Every  one  who  has  studied 
grammar  probably  knows  that  shall  is  used  in  the  first 
person  to  denote  future  time;  in  tlie  second  and  third 
person  to  denote  determination  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 
He  knows,  also,  that  ivill  is  used  in  the  first  person  to 
denote  purpose,  intention,  inclination,  or  any  mental  state 
which  implies  exercise  of  the  speaker's  will ;  in  the  second 
and  third  person  to  denote  mere  futurity.  Errors,  then, 
which  occur  in  the  uses  of  shall  and  will  in  direct  state- 
ments are  due  not  so  much  to  ignorance  of  the  rules  for 
their  uses  as  to  a  careless  employment  of  these  auxiliaries. 


474  COMPOSITION  AND  rhp:toric 

For  instance,  if  we  stop  to  think,  we  can  easily  see  that 
will  is  incorrectly  used  in  such  sentences  as, 

I  will  be  pleased  to  see  you  soon. 
I  hope  I  will  be  able  to  come. 
I  think  I  will  feel  better  soon. 

Since  tvill  in  the  first  person  denotes  that  the  speaker  is 
exercising  volition,  the  preceding  sentences  mean,  in  the 
first,  that, 

I  am  determined  to  be  pleased ; 
in  the  second,  tliat, 

I  hope  I  am  inclined  (or  intend  to  be  able)  to  come ; 
in  the  third,  that, 

I  think  I  intend  to  feel  better  soon. 

In  determining  which  auxiliary,  shall  or  will,  to  use  in 
direct  statements,  it  will  be  helpful  to  the  student  to 
note  that  shall  in  the  first  person  is  equivalent  to  the 
phrase  going  to;  in  the  second  and  third  person,  to  must; 
also  that  will  in  the  first  person  is  equivalent  to  intend,  am 
determined,  or  to  any  verb  expressing  volition;  in  the 
second  and  third  person,  to  the  phrase  going  to.  Note  the 
following  sentences,  in  which  the  uses  of  shall  and  will  are 
made  clear  through  the  equivalent  forms  in  parentheses: 

Shall 

1.  I  shall  (am  going  to)  be  promoted. 

2.  You  shall  (must)  obey  me. 

3.  He  shall  (must)  pay  me. 

WiU 

1.  I  will  (intend  or  am  determined)  to  go. 

2.  You  will  (are  going  to)  be  successful. 

3.  The  beauty  of  the  interior  will  (is  going  to)  surprise  you. 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN  GRAMMAR  475 

Exceptional  Uses  of  Shall  and  Will : 

1.  Shall  is  used  in  the  third  person  to  express  prophecy; 
as, 

And  it  shall  come  to  pass. 

2.  Will  is  used  in  the  second  and  third  person  to  ex- 
press a  polite  command  or  order;   as, 

You  will  please  be  present  at  the  next  English  Conference. 

3.  Will  is  used  in  the  first  person  to  express  promise;  as, 
I  will  pay  you  what  I  owe  next  Monday. 

EXERCISE 

Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  auxiliary/,  shall  or 
will;  give  reasons  for  your  choice. 

Test  the  correctness  of  the  auxiliary  7ised  by  substituting 
equivalent  verbs  or  verb  phrases. 

Remember  that  will  should  not  be  used  in  the  first  person 
after  verbs  of  thinking,  hoping,  fearing,  or  before  words  ex- 
pressing pleasure,  necessity,  obligation,  or  inability. 

1.  We be  compelled  to  start  early. 

2.  The  recent  rains hinder  our  progress. 

3.  I drown ;  nobody help  me.' 

4.  I not  be  here  next  year,  but  you be  here. 

5.  I be  unable  to  accomplish  the  task  before  morning. 

6.  I not  endure  his  impertinence. 

7.  I  fear  I not  be  equal  to  the  emergency. 

8.  You come,  I  am  sure. 

9.  You come;  you  see  I  am  determined. 

10.  You make  the  reparation  which  I  demand. 

11.  You gladly  make  reparation  for  the  wroug  which 

you  have  unconsciously  done. 


476  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

12.  Yoii now  lay  aside  your  books,  pupils,  and  listen  to 

what  I  have  to  say. 

13.  If  you help  me,  I be  under  great  obligations  to 

you. 

14.  "And  your  sons  and  your  daughters prophesy,  and 

your  young  men see  visions,  and  your  old  men dream 

dreams." 

15.  General    Bradford,  you advance    upon  the  fort   at 

daybreak. 

16.  I not   make  any  concessions   to   her;  I be  as 

stubborn  as  she  is. 

17.  You not  have  this  piece  of  silk,  for  I  saw  it  first. 

18.  I bestow  a  beautiful    gift  upon  whoever  finds  the 

end  of  the  rainbow. 

19.  We be   delighted    to    have   you   with   us   on   that 

occasion. 

20.  We  hope  we be  permitted  to  enter  the  contest. 

SHOULD  AND   WOULD 

Should  and  would  as  the  past  tense  forms  of  shall  and 
will  generally  have  uses  in  sentences  corresponding  to  the 
uses  of  shall  and  uill.  Should  is  used  in  the  first  person 
as  a  mere  tense  sign  without  reference  to  a  volitional 
state  of  mind,  and  in  the  second  and  third  person  to  de- 
note that  the  action  implied  is  under  the  speaker's  control; 
ivould,  like  ivill,  is  used  in  the  first  person  to  express 
determination,  intention,  or  inclination,  and  in  the  second 
and  third  person  as  a  mere  tense  sign.  The  proper  uses 
of  should  and  ivould  are  illustrated  in  the  following  sen- 
tences: 

1.    I  should  be  glad  to  join  you,  if  I  could  do  so. 

"  Should  "  is  used  in  this  sentence  as  a  mere  tense  sign 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        477 

without  reference  to  volition.     It  corresponds  to  "  shall  " 
in  the  sentence, 

I  shall  be  glad  to  join  you  if  I  can  do  so. 

2.  The  jury  decided  that  the  prisoner  should  be  put  to 
death. 

"  Should "  here  denotes  determination  on  the  part  of 
the  body  pronouncing  the  sentence.  It  corresponds  to 
"shall"  in  the  direct  statement  made  by  the  jury;  as, 

The  prisoner  shall  be  put  to  death. 

3.  I  would  go ;  nobody  was  able  to  hinder  me. 

"  Would "  in  this  sentence  denotes  determination  on 
the  part  of  the  speaker  ;  it  corresponds  to  "  will "  in  the 
sentence, 

I  will  go ;  nobody  can  hinder  me. 

4.  Father  would  not  permit  me  to  skate. 

In  this  sentence  "  would  "  is  used  as  a  mere  tense  sign, 
corresponding  to  "  will  "  in  the  sentence, 

Father  will  not  permit  me  to  skate. 

Exceptional  Uses  of  ' '  Should  "  and  "  Would. "  —  1.  Should 
is  often  used  to  express  duty,  obligation,  or  propriety;   as, 

A  pronoun  should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  person  and 
number. 

Every  citizen  should  cast  a  vote. 

2.  Would  is  frequently  used  to  express  a  wish ;  as, 
I  would  (wish)  that  he  were  here. 

3.  Would  is  used  to  express  customary  or  habitual 
action ;   as, 

Nicholas  Vedder's  adherents  would  (were  in  the  habit  of 


478  COMPOSITION    AXD    RHETORIC 

sitting)    sit  around  the  village  inn  and  tell  (telling)  endless 
sleepy  stones  about  nothing. 

Uses  of  **  Shall"  and  "Will"  in  Direct  Questions.  — Many 
people  who  employ  sJtull  and  will  correctly  in  direct  state- 
ments, frequently  misuse  them  in  asking  questions.  The 
reason  for  this  confusion  is,  that  the  proper  auxiliary  to 
be  employed  in  the  question  is  determined  by  the  form 
expected  in  the  answer;  thus  the  speaker,  in  asking  the 
question,  must  keep  in  mind  the  answer  which  he  expects. 
Study  the  uses  of  shalU  tvilU  should^  and  tvould  in  the  fol- 
lowing examjDles  : 

1.  Ques.  —  Shall  you  be  there  this  evening  ? 
Ans.  —  I  shall  be  there. 

2.  Ques.  — Will  you  please  to  be  there  this  evening? 
Ans.  —  I  will  be  there. 

"  Shall "  and  "  will "  in  these  sentences  are  correct. 
In  the  first  question  the  speaker  is  inquiring  not  about 
the  intention  of  the  person  addressed,  but  about  a  future 
action ;  hence  he  expects  the  person  addressed  to  reply, 

I  shall  (am  going  to)  be  there. 

In  the  second  question,  the  speaker  is  inquiring  not 
merely  about  future  action,  but  about  the  intention  of  the 
person  addressed ;  he  wishes  to  exact  from  that  person  a 
promise ;  hence  he  expects  the  person  addressed  to  reply, 

I  will  (promise  to)  be  there. 

Note.  — The  uses  of  should  and  would  in  questions  cor- 
respond to  the  uses  of  shall  and  ivill. 

Uses  in  Indirect  Statements  or  Questions.  —  The  auxilia- 
ries shall,  will,  should,  and  would  used  in  indirect  statements 
or  questions  should  agree  with  the  forms  used  in  the  cor- 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN  (iRAMMAR  479 

responding-   direct    statements    or    questions.     Note    the 
following  examples: 

1.  Indirect  statement  —  He  says  he  shall  be  obliged  to 
resign. 

Corresponding  direct  statement  —  I  shall  (am  going  to)  be 
obliged  to  resign. 

2.  Indirect  statement — Caesar  says  he  will  take  the  tenth 
legion  and  march  against  the  enemy. 

Corresponding  direct  statement  —  I  will  (intend  to)  take 
the  tenth  legion  and  march  against  the  enemy. 

3.  Indirect  statement  —  He  hoped  he  should  be  set  free. 
Corresponding  direct  statement  —  I  hope  I  shall  be  set  free. 

4.  Indirect  statement — The  principal  said  that  the  boys 
should  come  to  his  terms. 

Corresponding  direct  statement  —  The  boys  shall  (must) 
come  to  my  terms. 

5.  Indirect  question  —  The  applicant  asked  whether  he 
should  be  required  to  take  an  examination. 

Corresponding  direct  —  Shall  I  (am  I  going  to)  be  required 
to  take  an  examination? 

EXERCISES 

1.  1.  Write  three  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  shoiiJl 
as  a  mere  tense  sign;  write  three  illustrating  its  use  to  ex- 
press determination  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

2.  Write  three  sequences  illustrating  the  use  of  would  as  a 
mere  tense  sign;  write  three  illustrating  its  use  to  express 
volitio7i. 

Test  the  correctness  of  the  auxiliary  used  hy  substituting 
corresponding  for?ns  of  shall  and  tvill.  Note  examples  illus- 
trating uses  of  shovld  and  tvould    {page  477). 

II.  1.  Use  each  of  the  auxiliaries  sJiall,  will,  should,  and 
would,  in  a  question.      Test  the  correctness  of  the  auxiliaries 


480  COMPOSITION   AND    RHETORIC 

used  hy  ivriting  the  corresponding  ansivers.  Remember  to 
use  in  the  question  the  form  ivluch  you  expect  in  the  answer. 

2.  Illustrate  the  different  uses  of  shall,  will,  should,  and 
would  in  indirect  statements.  Test  the  correctness  of  the 
auxiliaries  used  hy  writing  the  corresponding  direct  state- 
ments. 

Note  that  indirect  statements  follow  verbs  of  saying, 
thinking,  perceiving,  etc. 

III.  Insert  in  each  blank  the  proper  auxiliary  shall,  will, 
should,  or  tvould;  give  reason  for  your  choice: 

1.  I like  to  suggest  a  diifereiit  metliod  of  solving  that 

problem. 

2.  We   deteriuiued.    that   we conquer    the    rebellious 

tribes. 

3.  The  governor have  pardoned  the  convict  if  he  could 

consistently  have  done  so. 

4.  We have   arrived   earlier  had   the  roads   been   iu 

better  condition. 

5.  I that  I  had  taken  his  kindly  advice. 

G.    If  this  assistance be   offered   to   you, you  ac- 
cept it  ? 

7.    we  adnut  into  this  club  any  one  Avho  is  not  a  college 

graduate  ? 

8.  If   you  were  placed   in  my  position, you  not  feel 

uncomfortable  ? 

9.  If  you  were  I you  accept  the  apology  ? 

10.    you  be  able  to  deliver  this  message  in  time  ? 

11.  James  promised  me  that  he be  there  in  time. 

12.  The   policeman   feared   that   he lose   his    position 

when  the  new  mayor  came  into  office. 

13.  The  operator  replied  that  he make  no  compromises 

with  the  miners. 

14.  He  is  sure  that  he be  elected  judge. 

15.  He  hopes  he succeed  iu  disarming  prejudice. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        481 

16.  We  do  not  know  how  we spend  the  latter  part  of 

the  vacation. 

17.  The  mayor  said  that  the  laws be  obeyed;  that  he 

leave  no  stone  unturned  to  l)ring  criminals  to  justice. 

18.  The  prophet  said  that  there be  wars  and  rumors  of 

wars. 

19.  The  judge  asked  the  prisoner  if,  in  case  of  pardon,  he 
keep  out  of  further  trouble. 

IV.     Criticise  the  uses  of  shall,  will,  sJiould,  and  ivouldin 

the  following  sentences;  give  reasons  for  criticisms  made: 

1.  Do  you  think  the  judge  shall  discharge  the  prisoner? 

2.  Will  we  be  urged  to  attend  the  convention  ? 

3.  Will  we  grant  their  request? 

Note.  —  In  asking  a  question  ivill  or  tvould  sliould  never 
be  used  with  a  first  person  pronoun  ;  one  is  not  likely  to 
question  his  own  inclination,  intention,  or  determination. 

4.  Would  you  not  be  surprised  if  Congress  should  make  this 
appropriation  ? 

5.  He  promised  me  that  he  should  be  there  on  time. 

6.  The  treasurer  said  he  was  confident  that  he  would  be 
elected,  and  he  probably  should  have  been,  had  his  promised 
supporters  not  betrayed  him  at  the  last  moment. 

7.  Would  we  be  censured  if  we  should  refuse  to  coinply 
with  the  terms  ? 

8.  I  will  be  delighted  to  discuss  the  matter  with  you. 

9.  He  hoped  he  would  not  be  misunderstood. 

10.  He  hoped  his  position,  in  the  matter  should  not  be 
misinterpreted. 

11.  The  prisoner  wondered  whether  or  not  he  would  be 
discharged. 

12.  The  officer  feared  that  he  would  be  compelled  to  resign. 

13.  I  will  always  feel  under  obligation  to  you  for  this  favor. 

14.  Should  you  give  a  decision  in  his  favor,  if  you  were  I? 

2i 


482  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

15.  They  sliould  have  made  the  treaty  earlier  if  other 
powers  had  nut  intervened. 

USES  OF  THE  INDICATIVE  AND  OF  THE  SUB- 
JUNCTIVE MODES  IN  CONDITIONAL,  CONCES- 
SIVE, AND   OPTATIVE   CLAUSES 

The  indicative  mode  is  used  to  assert  a  fact  or  an  as- 
sumed fact ;  the  subjunctive  models  used  to  assert  a  condition 
which  is  doubtful,  improbable,  or  even  contrary  to  fact. 
The  error  of  using  the  indicative  mode  for  the  subjunc- 
tive is  most  likely  to  occur  in  conditional,  concessive, 
or  optative  (from  the  Latin  infinitive  ojjtare  meaning  to 
u'isli)  clauses.  Study  the  uses  of  the  indicative  and  the 
subjunctive  modes  in  the  sentences  below : 

1.  If  it  is  raining  (meaning  that  it  is),  I  shall  go  anyway. 

The  indicative  "  is  "  is  correctly  used  because  the  con- 
dition is  asserted  as  a  fact.  The  thought  of  the  sentence 
is  equivalent  to  the  thought  of  the  sentence, 

It  is  raining ;  nevertheless  I  shall  go. 

2.  If  he  is  here  (assuming  it  as  a  fact  that  he  is  here),  he 
will  be  glad  to  meet  you. 

Again  the  indicative  "  is"  is  correctly  used  because  the 
condition  asserted  is  assumed  to  be  a  fact.  The  thought 
of  the  conditional  clause  is  equivalent  to  the  thought  of 
the  phrase, 

Assuming  it  as  a  fact  that  he  is  here. 

3.  If  he  were  here  (meaning  he  is  not  here)  he  would  be 
glad  to  meet  you. 

The  subjunctive  "were"  is  correctly  used  because  the 
condition  asserted  is  contrarv  to  fact. 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  483 

4.  If  he  be  honest  (a  condition  which  has  not  been  estab- 
lished as  a  fact,  or  a  condition  which  is  doubtful),  he  will  pay 
me  what  he  owes  me. 

The  subjunctive  "be"  is  correctly  used,  because  the 
condition  asserted  implies  doubt  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker.  The  thought  of  the  conditional  clause  is  equiv- 
alent to  the  statement, 

•     He  may  possibly  be  honest,  though  I  doubt  it. 

5.  Though  he  is  very  ill,  he  will  })robably  recover. 

The  indicative  "is"  is  correctly  used,  because  the  con- 
cessive clause  expresses  a  fact.  The  thought  of  the  sen- 
tence is  equivalent  to  the  thought  of  the  sentence, 

He  is  very  ill ;  yet  he  will  probably  recover. 

6.  Though  he  were  king  of  a  hundred  realms,  I  would  not 
serve  him. 

The  subjunctive  "were"  is  correctly  used,  because  the 
concessive  clause  expresses  a  condition  contrary  to  fact. 
The  concessive  clause  is  equivalent  to  the  statement, 

He  is  not  king  of  a  hundred  realms. 

7.  Though  he  be  defeated,  he  will  bear  up  like  a  man. 

The  subjunctive  "be"  is  correctly  used,  because  the 
concessive  clause  expresses  a  condition  which  is  doubtful 
or  improbable.  The  thought  of  the  sentence  is  equivalent 
to  the  thought  of  the  following  : 

He  may  possibly  (though  I  do  not  think  it  probable)  be  de- 
feated ;  if  so,  he  will  bear  up  like  a  man. 

8.  I  wish  I  were  assured  of  his  friendship. 

The  subjunctive  "  were  "  is  correctly  used,  because  the 
wish  expressed  is  contrary  to  fact. 


484 


COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 


Note.  —  AlthouL^li  a  lew  grammarians  sanction  the  use 
of  the  indicative  mode  of  the  verb  to  he  in  some  optative 
chiuses,  the  burden  of  authority  is  opposed  to  such  usage. 

In  the  employment  of  verbs  in  conditional,  concessive,  or 
optative  clauses,  it  would  be  well  for  the  student  to  ask 
himself  the  question :  Is  the  clause  intended  to  express  a. 
real  or  an  assumed  fact,  or  is  it  intended  to  express  a  con- 
dition which  is  doubtful  or  contrary  to  fact? 


EXERCISES 

I.  Reicrite  tlte  following  sentences,  changinr/  the  first  clause 
in  each  sentence  to  an  equivalent  conditional  or  concessive 
clause,  and  making  such  changes  in  the  folloiving  clause  as 
the  sense  demands.  Remember  that  if  the  first  clause  ex- 
presses a  real  or  an  assumed  fact,  the  indicative  mode  should 
he  used;  if  it  expresses  a  condition  which  is  doubtful  or  con- 
trary to  fact,  the  subjunctive  mode  should  he  used. 


1.  He  is  high  tempered ;  yet  every  one  likes  him. 

2.  He  is,  I  assume,  here,  and  he  will  be  pleased  to 

address  you. 

3.  He  is  not  here,  or  he  would  gladly  address  you. 

4.  He  may  possibly  (though  I  doubt  it)  be  here;  if 

so,  he  will  gladly  address  you. 
'5.    He  is  in  great  distress;  yet  he  manifests  no  pain. 

6.  He  may  possibly  slay  me ;  yet  will  I  trust  him. 

7.  He  is  not  a  giant ;  if  he  were,  I  should  not  fear 
him. 

8.  Andrew  Jafkson  was  President ;  nevertlieless  Con- 

gress did  nut  hesitate  to  impeach  him. 


If: 


Though : < 


II.    Insert  an  indicative  or  a  suhjunctive  form  of  the  verb 
•to  he^'  in  each  blank  left  in  tlie  folluwing  sentences: 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  485 

1.  If  I you,  I  would  take  up  the  stud}^  of  Spanish. 

2.  If     he convicted,    no     one    believed      him    to     be 

guilty. 

3.  If  she sincere  (a  thing  which  is  very  doubtful),  she 

will  have  an  opportunity  to  prove  it. 

4.  If  he absent  (as  I  assume  that  he  is),  let  me  take  his 

place. 

o.   Though  the   Aveather disagreeable,  we  enjoyed   our 

visit  thoroughly.  • 

6.  Though  the  heaviest  burden -laid  upon  me  (a  thing 

which  is  possible  but  not  likely  to  occur),  I  shall  endure  it  for 
the  sake  of  my  country. 

7.  Would  that  I -free  from  all  fear  of  public  opinion. 

8.  I  wish  I taller. 


CONFUSION   OF   TRANSITIVE   WITH   INTRANSI- 
TIVE  VERBS 

Forms  of  the  transitive  verbs  lay,  set,  and  raise  are  often 
incorrectly  used  for  forms  of  the  intransitive  verbs  lie,  sit, 
and  rise.  This  error  is  sometimes  due  to  a  failure  to 
recognize  that  the  former  verbs  (lay,  set,  and  raise')  should 
be  used  only  in  a  transitive  sense ;  the  latter,  in  an  in- 
transitive sense :  that  the  former  verbs,  which  mean 
respectively  to  cause  to  lie  or  to  deposit,  to  cause  to  sit  or  to 
place,  and  to  cause  to  rise  or  to  lift  up,  require  objects  to 
complete  their  meaning :  that  the  latter,  which  mean  re- 
spectively to  recline,  to  be  in  a  p)osition  of  rest,  to  ascend  or 
go  up,  do  not  require  objects  to  complete  their  meaning. 
For  example, 

We  lay  (deposit)  the  book  on  the  table ;  then  we  lie  (recline) 
on  the  couch  to  rest : 

or. 


486  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

We  set  (place)  the  food  on  the  table ;  then  we  sit  (take  a 
resting  position)  down  and  enjoy  the  meal ; 

or, 

"We  raise  (lift  np)  the  lid  of  the  teakettle,  and  the  steam 
rises  (ascends  or  goes  up). 

This  error  is  not  always  due,  however,  to  a  confusion  of 
transitive  and  intransitive  ideas  ;  it  is  perhaps  oftener  due 
to  ignorance  of  the  principal  parts  of  these  verbs,  or  to  a 
careless  employment  of  their  past  forms.  For  instance, 
the  use  of  "laid"  for  "lay"  in  the  sentence,  "He  laid 
down,"  is  due  either  to  a  confusion  of  transitive  and  in- 
transitive ideas,  or,  as  is  more  likely,  to  a  failure  to 
recognize  that  "lay"  not  "laid"  is  the  preterite  Cpast) 
form  of  "lie." 

In  using  any  of  these  verbs,  then,  it  would  be  well  for 
the  student  to  ask  himself  first  the  question :  Does  the 
sense  of  the  sentence  demand  the  transitive  verb  lay,  set, 
or  raise,  or  does  it  demand  the  intransitive  lie,  sit,  or  rise? 
then.  What  are  the  past  forms  of  the  verb  which  I  am 
to  use? 

EXERCISES 

I.  Memorize  the  principal  parts  of  the  verbs  lie,  lay,  sit, 
set,7'ise,  and  raise.  Insert  2)7'oper  forms  of  lie  and  lay  in 
the  blanks  left  in  the  following  sentences;  give  reasons  for  the 
forms  used: 

1.  Vast  treasures  are away  under  the  sea. 

2.  AV'ill  he  be  able  to  sustain  the  heavy  burden upon 

him  ? 

3.  Then  after  they  had all  their  cares  aside,  they 

down  in  the  cavern  to  sleep. 

4.  The  lion  and  the  lamb  .shall down  together. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        487 

5.  How  long  tliey  would  have there  if  they  had  not 

been  interrupted  by  the  Indians,  I  do  not  know. 

6.  Let  all  books  be aside. 

7.  There  they for  hours  with  the  cold  rain  dripping 

on  their  faces. 

8.  Let  us  hope  that  this  responsibility  will  be where  it 

belongs. 

9.  The  bear  has dormant  all  winter. 

10.  While  we  were off  the  tennis  court  the  others  were 

idly on  the  ground  laughing  at  us. 

11.  Insert  proper  forms  of  sit  and  set  in  the  blanks  left 
in  the  following  sentences  ;  give  reasons  for  forms  nsed: 

1.  iSTero fire  to  Rome,  then down  to  watch  the  city 

burn. 

2.  After  the  time  for  departure  had  been ,  they 

down  to  discuss  the  route  which  they  should  follow. 

3.  Where  did  you in  the  convention  ? 

4.  The  skirt well. 

5.  Tlie   farmer  expects  to fourteen    hens    to-morrow. 

How  many  do  you  think  will ? 

6.  The  child  had in  one  position  so  long  that  he  could 

scarcely  move. 

7.  Caesar out  at  daybreak. 

8.  The  sun  had before  we  continued  our  journey. 

9.  The  men to  work  at  an  early  hour. 

Note.  —  The  verb  set  may  be  used  intransitively  in 
the  sense  of  starting  out,  as  in  the  seventh  sentence  ;  in 
the  sense  of  passing  below  the  horizon  or  declining,  as  in  the 
eighth ;   or  in  the  sense  of  begin,  as  in  tlie  ninth. 

III.  Insert  proper  forms  of  rise  and  raise  in  the  blanks 
left  in  the  folloiving  sentences;  give  reasons  for  forms  used  : 

1.  The  river to  a  great  height. 

2.  Mitchell  quickly and  denied  the  charge. 


488  CO.MPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

Note.  —  For  tlie  tlLslinctioii  between  rise  and  arise,  con- 
suit  the  dictionaries,  —  particularly  the  dictionaries  of 
s^-nonynis. 

3.  A  question  in  regard  to  the  applicant's  fitness  for  the 
position  has . 

4.  The  question  has  been as  to  whether  the  action  of 

the  court  is  legal. 

5.  When  the  yeast  begins  to the  sponge,  set  the  pan 

near  the  fire  and  let  the  dough to  the  top. 

6.   up,  all  ye  hosts  and  conquer  the  foe. 

7.  Then  every  man to  the  defense  of  his  country. 

8.  Continue  to your  standard  and  you  will  continue  to 

IV,  Use  lie,  lay,  sit,  set,  rise,  and  raise  in  original  sen- 
tences. Chanije  the  verb  in  each  sentence  to  the  jxreterite 
{past),  then  to  the  past  jmi-ticipial  form. 

Confusion  of  Verb  Forms.  —  Errors  in  the  uses  of  the 
preterite  (simple  past)  and  participial  forms  of  verbs  are 
due  either  to  ig-norance  of  the  principal  parts  of  verbs  or 
to  a  misunderstanding  of  the  function  of  these  forms. 
The  person  who  says,  "  He  seen"  or  "  He  done  "  for  "  He 
has  seen  "  or  "  He  has  done,"  either  mistakes  seen  or  done 
for  the  simple  past  form  of  see  or  do,  or  else  he  does  not 
know  that  the  participial  form  of  the  verb  (if  it  differs 
from  the  preterite  or  simple  past  form)  cannot  be  used  to 
make  an  assertion  without  the  help  of  an  auxiliary  verb. 
In  other  words,  .fcen  and  done  are  not  verbs  but  participial 
forms  of  verbs.  Properly  used  Avithout  auxiliaries,  they 
are  participles;  but  with  the  help  of  auxiliaries  they  may 
become  parts  of  verb  phrases  ;  as, 

The  beautiful  chrysauthennuiis  seen  at  the  floral  festival  are 
of  a  rare  variety  (participle). 


COMMON   ERRORS  IN   GRAMMAR  489 

Beautiful  chrysanthemums  of  a  rare  variety  ivere  seen  at  the 
floral  festival  (verb). 

Note.  —  This  error,  using  the  past  participle  as  a  past 
verb,  can  arise,  of  course,  only  when  the  preterite  and  par- 
ticipial forms  differ.  All  regular  verbs  and  many  irregu- 
lar verbs  have  the  same  forms  for  the  preterite  tense  and 
the  ])ast  participle,  and  a  few  verbs  like  sing,  ring.,  drink, 
shriJik,  swim,  etc.,  liave  two  forms  for  the  preterite  tense, 
one  of  tlie  forms  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  past  par- 
ticiple ;  as. 


Present 

Preterite  (past) 

Past  Participle 

sing 

sang  or  sung 

sung 

ring 

rang  or  rung 

rung 

drink 

drank  or  drunk 

drunk 

shrink 

shrank  or  shrunk 

shrunk 

swim 

swam  or  swum 

swum 

Modern  usage,  however,  sanctions  only  one  form  for  the 
preterite  tense  of  each  of  these  verbs ;  namely,  the  forms 
sang,  rang,  drank,  shrank,  and  swam. 

Again,  the  person  who  says,  "  I  have  saw  "  and  "  I  have 
went,"  instead  of  "  I  saw  "  (or  "  have  seen  "  )  and  "  I 
went"  (or  "have  gone  "),  either  mistakes  saw  and  ive7it 
for  past  participial  forms  of  the  verbs  see  and  go,  or  else  he 
does  not  know  that  the  preterite  forms  of  verbs  do  not 
require  the  help  of  auxiliary  verbs.  Persons  in  the  habit 
of  using-  wrongf  forms  of  this  sort  can  correct  their  errors 
only  by  constant  watchfulness. 

Many  other  errors  in  the  uses  of  preterite  and  particip- 
ial forms  of  verbs  are  due  to  ignorance  of  the  principal 
parts  of  the  verb,  as  in  the  use  of  biirsted  for  burst,  gotten 
for  got,  and  dove  for  dived. 


490  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

EXERCISES 

I.  The  jyreterite  and  past  participial  forms  of  the  follow- 
ing verbs  are  often  eotifased:  see,  do,yo,  run,  come,  begin, 
ring,  sing,  drinh,  shrink. 

Memorize  the  principal  parts  of  these  verbs,  then  use  the 
preterite  and  past  participial  forms  in  original  sentences. 

II.  Tlie  preterite  and  particijnal  forms  in  the  folio iving 
verbs  vary  with  the  change  in  7neaning  of  the  verbs:  bid, 
strike,  light,  hang,  3Iemorize  the  principal  parts  of  these 
verbs  as  follows: 

])i(l  (in  the  sense  of  command). 

Bid  (in  the  sense  of  bidding  at  anction). 

Strike  (in  the  sense  of  being  smitten  by  misfortune). 

Strike  (in  the  sense  of  giving  a  blow). 

Light  (in  the  sense  of  illuminating). 

Light  (in  the  sense  of  descending  from  flight). 

Hang  (in  the  sense  of  suspend). 

Hang  (in  the  sense  of  putting  to  death). 

Use  the  preterite  and  past  participial  fo7')ns  of  these  verbs 
in  original  sentences. 

III.  Memorize  the  principal  parts  of  the  following  verbs: 
awake,  bhur,  break,  burst,  grow,  heat,  ride,  shine,  shoir, 
slag,  speak,  strive,  throw,  write,  forget,  freeze,  fig,  flee, 
floiv,  got. 

Use  the  preterite  and  past  participial  forms  of  these  verbs 
in  original  sentences. 

IV.  Criticise  the  verbs  and  verb  forms  used  in  the  following 
sentences  : 

1.  They  run  rapidly  toward  the  burning  building. 

2.  When  the  boy  had  ran  two  thirds  of  the  distance  his 
strength  give  out  completely  and  he  collapsed. 

3.  He  done  all  he  could  ;  have  you  did  as  well  ? 

4.  We  seen  liim,  but  not  until  he  had  saw  us  first. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        491 

5.  I  think  I  could  have  did  better  work  if  I  had  came  to 
school  more  regularly. 

6.  How  often  have  you  went  there  ? 

7.  The  boy  had  swam  to  the  middle  of  the  stream  before 
he  perceived  his  danger. 

8.  When  the  baud  begun  to  play  the  horse  become  fright- 
ened. 

9.  We  bid  them  good-by. 

10.  Mother  often  bid  me  stay  away  from  the  water. 

11.  We  bade  fifteen  dollars  upon  a  beautiful  piece  of  pottery. 

12.  The  final  blow  for  liberty  has  been  stricken. 

13.  The  old  man  was  struck  to  the  earth  with  humiliation. 

14.  The  murderer  was  hung  by  the  mob  before  the  officers 
could  interfere. 

15.  The    sheriff    who   hung   the   murderer  was   afterward 
struck  with  remorse. 

16.  The  swimmer  dove  to  the  bottom  of  the  stream. 

17.  When  the  supply   of   food   give  out  the  explorers  eat 
horse  flesh,  or  in  fact  anything  they  could  get. 

18.  The  traitor  flew  from  justice. 

19.  The  river  has  overflown  its  banks. 

20.  I  had  gotten  halfway  down   the  street  when  I  discov- 
ered that  I  had  forgot  my  umbrella. 

21.  It  has  been  proven  beyond  doubt  that  Burr  was  guilty 
of  treason. 

22.  When  it  was  showed  that  illegal  means  had  been  em- 
ployed to  elect  the  mayor,  the  election  was  declared  void. 

23.  After  they  had  strived  many  years  to  set  aside  the  evil, 
they  give  up  in  despair, 

24.  They  slayed  him  where  he  stood. 

25.  I  have  wrote  many  compositions  on  S2:>ring. 

26.  The  flowers  sprung  up  in  a  few  days  after  we  planted 
the  seeds. 

27.  She  has  sang  that  song  often,  yet  she  sung  it  again  last 
night. 


492  COMPOSITION    AND    RHETORIC 

28.  Then  the  awful  serpents  swum  swiftly  to  shore. 

29.  They  had  rang  for  help  before  I  rung. 

30.  He  come  three  days  in  succession  before  he  discovered 

that  we  had  went  away  for  the  summer. 

SPLIT  INFINITIVE 

The  "split  iiiliuitive,"  so  called,  is  one  in  wliicli  an 
adverb  or  an  adverbial  phrase  is  used  between  to,  the  sign 
of  the  inlinitive,  and  the  infinitive  itself  ;  as, 

To  almost  succeed. 

To  in  a  measure  forget. 

Although  such  usage  is  not  ungrammatical,  it  is  gen- 
erally awkward  and  should  be  avoided  by  the  inexperi- 
enced writer. 

INCOMPLETE   AND   OMITTED  VERB   FORMS 

The  habit,  peculiarly  American,  of  cutting  short  what 
we  have  to  say,  is  perhaps  best  illustrated  in  the  very 
prevalent  use  of  incomplete  verb  forms  and  in  the  omis- 
sion of  verbs  necessary  to  the  sense  of  sentences.  With 
a  characteristic  disposition  to  abbreviate,  we  say  in  an- 
swer to  the  question, 

"  Do  you  expect  to  be  there  ?  " 

"  Yes,  I  fully  expect  to,"  for  "  Yes,  I  fully  expect  to  be 
there."     Again  we  ask, 

'<  How  are  you  ?  "  (a  question  which  mkjlit  mean,  "  How  are 
yowfinanrialhi?'')  for  "  How  are  you  feeling  ?  " 

Still  again  we  say,  incoherently, 

"  She  gives  me  more  credit  than  Mary,"  instead  of  "  She 
gives  me  more  credit  than  she  gives  to  Mary  "  or  "  She  gives 
me  more  credit  than  Mary  gives  me." 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        493 

Although  such  ellipsis  when  it  does  not  cause  ambiguity 
is  allowable  in  conversation,  it  really  violates  a  principle 
in  grammar,  and  therefore  should  not  be  used  in  formal 
writing. 

OTHER   COMMON   ERRORS 

Confusion  of  Parts  of  Speech.  —  The  parts  of  speech 
oftenest  confused  with  other  parts  are  :  (1)  adjectives 
misused  for  adverbs  ;  (2)  adverbs  misused  for  adjectives  ; 
(3)  prepositions  misused  for  conjunctions. 

The  words  oftenest  confused  are  illustrated  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences  : 

1.  I  could  scarce  (scarcely)  endure  the  thought  of  leaving 
home. 

2.  Most  (almost)  all  of  the  members  were  in  favor  of  the 
motion. 

3.  We  like  our  new  minister  full  (fully)  as  well  as  we  liked 
our  former  one. 

4.  These  pupils  are  not  near  (nearly)  so  hard  to  control  as 
the  others. 

5.  John  is  some  (somewhat)  better  to-day. 

6.  She  reads  very  good  (well)  indeed. 

7.  The  child  behaves  lovely  (well). 

In  these  sentences  the  adjectives  "  scarce,"  "  most," 
"full,"  "near,"  "some,"  "good,"  and  "lovely"  are  incor- 
rectly used  for  the  adverbs  winch  are  indicated  by  paren- 
theses. 

1.  The  music  sounded  sweetly  (sweet)  to  our  sleepy  ears. 

2.  Mother  feels  too  badly  (bad)  to  go  to  church  this  morning. 

3.  The  wind  blew  coldly  (cold)  and  keenly  (keen)  from  the 
north. 

4.  The  rose  smells  sweetly  (sweet). 

5.  Let  us  stand  firmly  (firm)  in  the  defense  of  right. 


494  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

In  tlu'se  sentences  the  adverbs  "sweetly,"  "badly,"' 
"coldly,"  "keenly,"  and  "firmly"  are  incorrectly  used 
fertile  adjectives  "sweet,"  "bad,"  "cold,"  "keen,"  and 
"firm."  The  qualities  expressed  by  these  words  belong, 
not  to  the  actions  asserted  by  the  verbs,  but  to  the  persons 
or  things  named  in  the  subjects  of  the  sentences. 

In  sentences  of  this  kind  it  is  sometimes  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  quality  to  be  expressed  belongs 
to  the  action  asserted  by  the  verb  or  whether  it  belongs 
to  the  subject  of  the  verb.     In  the  sentences. 

The  child  sat  quietly  in  h.is  little  desk, 
The  child  sat  quiot  in  his  little  desk, 

the  adverb  "quietly"  and  the  adjective  "quiet"  are 
equally  correct.  In  the  first  sentence  the  adverb  "  quietly  " 
describes  the  manner  of  sitting ;  in  the  second  sentence 
the  adjective  "  quiet "  expresses  a  quality  or  condition  asso- 
ciated with  the  child. 

Incorrect  Uses  of  Like.  — The  word  like  should  never  be 
used  to  connect  two  clauses.     In  the  sentence. 

He  rides  just  like  (as)  the  old  troopers  used  to  ride, 

"like"  is  incorrectl}'  used  as  a  subordinating  connective  in 
place  of  "as."  Should  the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause 
be  omitted,  leaving  the  word  "  trooper  "  a  substantive  part 
of  the  principal  clause,  "like"  would  have  to  be  substi- 
tuted for  "  as,"  for  it  would  then  have  the  force  of  a  prepo- 
sition ;  as. 

He  rides  just  like  an  old  trooper. 

The  use  of  like  for  as  If  is  even  worse  than  its  use  for  as. 
In  the  sentence. 

He  acted  like  (as  if)  he  was  (were)  angry, 

not  only  is  "like"  incorrectly  used  as  a  connective,  but  it 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        495 

also  fails  to  express  the  true  relation  between  the  clauses. 
By  expanding  the  above  abridged  conditional  sentence 
into  the  equivalent  sentence, 

He  acts  as  he  would  act  if  he  were  angry, 

we  can  easily  see  that  "  like  "  does  not  express  the  neces- 
sary relation  of  comparison  and  condition  which  the  double 
connective  "as  if"  expresses.     The  sentence  should  read, 

He  acts  as  if  he  were  angry. 

Incorrect  Uses  of  Connectives. — The  careless  use  of  con- 
nectives, resulting  in  incoherence  and  lack  of  emphasis, 
has  already  been  discussed  in  chapter  III,  page  92.  It 
seems  well,  however,  to  emphasize,  in  this  chapter,  their 
grammatical  functions.  The  errors  which  are  most  com- 
mon are  (1)  the  use  of  coordinating  connectives  to  con- 
nect elements  of  unequal  rank ;  (2)  the  confusion  of 
connectives  which  are  used  correlatively  with  adverbs  or 
adjectives ;  (3)  the  false  reference  of  which  to  refer  to  a 
verb,  adjective,  or  clause.  These  errors  are  illustrated  in 
the  sentences  below : 

1.  On  the  second  shelf  is  a  row  of  books  written  by  my  coun- 
trymen, and  which  comfort  me  in  my  hours  of  loneliness. 

In  this  sentence  the  coordinating  connective  "and," 
which  should  always  connect  elements  of  equal  rank,  is 
incorrectly  used  to  connect  the  participial  phrase  "written 
by  my  countrymen,"  with  the  subordinating  clause 
"which  comfort  me  in  my  loneliness."  The  sentence 
should  read, 

On  the  lower  shelf  is  a  row  of  books  which  have  been  written 
by  my  countrymen  and  which  comfort  me  in  my  hours  of  lone- 
liness, 

or,  still  better. 


49G  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

On  the  lower  shelf  is  a  row  of  books  which,  as  they  have 
been  written  by  my  countrymen,  comfort  me  in  my  hours  of 
loneliness. 

2.  Hoping  that  he  might  restore  peace  and  to  bring  about  a 
condition  favorable  to  progress,  the  president  made  this  procla- 
mation. 

Again  ''and"  is  made  to  connect  elements  of  unequal 
rank;  it  connects  the  d('])endent  clause  "that  he  might 
restore  peace"  with  the  inlinitive  phrase  "to  bring  about 
a  condition  favorable  to  progress."  Tlie  sentence  should 
read, 

Hoping  that  he  might  restore  peace  and  that  he  might  bring 
about  a  condition  more  favorable  to  progress,  the  president 
made  this  proclamation, 

or, 

Hoping  to  restore  peace  and  to  bring  about  a  condition,  etc. 

3.  As  I  passed  througli  the  corridors,  I  noticed  that  the 
walls  were  black  and  the  windows  had  not  been  washed  for  a 
long  time. 

In  this  sentence  "  and  "  connects  elements  which  are 
only  apparently  unequal ;  the  omission  of  the  subordinating 
connective  "that"  before  the  last  clause,  "the  windows 
liad  not  been  washed  for  a  long  time,"  makes  that  clause 
appear  as  a  statement,  whereas  it  is  really  equal  in  rank 
(as  the  object  of  the  verb  "noticed")  to  the  preceding 
clause,  "that  the  walls  were  black."  The  sentence  should 
read. 

As  I  passed  through  the  corridors.  I  noticed  that  the  walls 
were  black  and  that  the  windows  had  not  been  washed  for  a 
long  time. 

4.  The  people  contributed  not  only  a  large  sum  of  money  to 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        497 

the  San  Francisco  sufferers,  but  also  sent  vast  supplies  of  food 
and.  clothing. 

In  this  sentence  the  correlative  conjunction,  "  not  only 
— but  also,"  which  is  a  coordinating  connective,  is  made  by 
the  position  of  its  parts  to  connect  the  noun  "  sum"  with 
the  verb  "  sent."  That  it  may  connect  elements  of  equal 
rank  the  sentence  should  read, 

The  people  not  only  contributed  large  sums  of  money,  but 
also  sent  vast  supplies  of  food  and  clothing. 

The  elements  connected  by  a  correlative  conjunction 
should  always  be  preceded  by  the  parts  which  consti'tute 
the  correlative.  For  example,  if  two  verbs  or  two  adjec- 
tives, or  two  nouns,  or  two  phrases,  are  intended  to  be 
connected,  the  adverbial  or  adjective  part  of  the  connective 
should  precede  the  first  verb,  or  adjective,  or  noun,  or  phrase, 
and  the  connective  part  should  precede  the  second  verb,  or 
adjective,  or  noun,  or  phrase. 

5.  He  is  superior  not  alone  in  his  grasp  of  the  situation  but 
also  in  his  method  of  dealing  with  it. 

In  this  sentence  the  adverb  "  alone  "  is  falsely  used  in 
place  of  "only  "  as  a  correlative  part  of  a  conjunction. 
The  sentence  should  read, 

He  is  superior  not  only  in  his  grasp  of  the  situation,  but  also 
in  his  method  of  dealing  with  it. 

6.  The  situation  is  as  favorable  if  not  more  favorable  than 
it  was  yesterday. 

In  this  sentence  the  connective  "  than  "  is  falsely  used 
in  place  of  "as,"  which  is  the  true  correlative  of  "as  well." 
The  error  is  due  to  the  incoherent  position  of  the  paren- 
thetical phrase  "  if  not  more  favorable,"  which,  with  its 
2k 


498  ■     COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

comparative  adverb  "  more,"  makes  the  use   of    "  than " 
seem  correct.     The  sentence  should  read, 

The  situation  is  as  favorable  as  it  was  yesterday,  if  not  more 
favorable. 

7.  He  told  me  to  read,  which  I  did. 

8.  The  day  is  hot  which  adds  to  our  discomfort. 

In  tliese  sentences  "  which  "  is  ungrammatically  used  to 
refer,  in  the  seventh,  to  an  infinitive,  and  in  the  eighth  to  an 
adjective.  Strict  usage  requires  a  definite  noun  or  pro- 
noun as  the  antecedent  of  "  which."  The  seventh  sentence 
should  read, 

He  told  me  to  read,  a  direction  which  I  obeyed, 
or,  still  better, 

He  told  me  to  read  and  I  did  so. 

The  eighth  sentence  should  read, 

The  day  is  hot,  a  condition  which  adds  to  our  discomfort, 
or,  better, 

The  heat  of  the  day  adds  to  our  discomfort. 

Note.  — The  use  of  ivldch  to  refer  to  verbs,  adjectives, 
infinitives,  participles,  plirases,  and  clauses  is  not  uncom- 
mon among  good  writers,  but  such  usage  is  questioned  by 
the  best  grammarians  and  rlietoriciivus. 

Double  Objects  and  Double  Subjects.  —  The  error  of 
using  a  double  subject  of  a  verb  and  that  of  using  a 
double  object  of  a  verb  or  of  a  preposition  are  very  com- 
mon among  uneducated  and  careless  people.  It  is  not 
unusual  to  hear  such  expressions  as, 

John,  he  said  he  would  come. 

The  book  whicli  you  have  loaned  me,  I  will  return  it  to- 
morrow. 


COMMON   ERRORS   IN   GRAMMAR  499 

She  had  a  peculiar  eye  which  she  liad  the  power  of  turning 
it  up  until  you  could  see  only  the  white  of  it. 

There  is  no  surer  sign  of  illiteracy  than  the  use  of  a 
double  subject  or  of  a  double  object. 

Double  Negatives.  — We  are  all  faniiliar  with  the  double 
negatives  in  such  expressions  as, 

He  didn't  say  nothing.  ^ 

I  haven't  had  no  rest  all  day. 
There  won't  be  no  exercises  to-day. 

We  regard  the  error  in  each  of  these  sentences  as  one  of 
the  worst  violations  of  good  grammar.  In  such  expres- 
sions as, 

He  couldn't  scarcely  get  his  breath, 

He  hadn't  been  out  of  the  room  hardly  three  minutes, 

He  wasn't  gone  but  a  minute, 

the  use  of  the  double  negative  is  just  as  faulty,  though 
most  people  are  not  so  conscious  of  the  illiteracy. 

The  Ungrammatical  Construction  of  the  Participial  Phrase. 
—  A  participial  phrase  must  modify  some  noun  or  pronoun 
in  the  sentence  to  which  the  phrase  belongs.  When  the 
clause  or  sentence  with  which  the  phrase  is  associated 
contains  no  word  to  which  the  participle  may  refer,  the 
participle  has  no  real  structure  in  the  sentence  ;  as. 

Sitting  near  my  window,  a  runaway  horse  ran  by. 

Such  a  violation  of  the  laws  of  good  usage  makes  the 
sentence  incoherent. 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  errors  in  the  following  sentences  and  give  rea- 
sons for  the  corrections  made: 


500  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

1.  Sometimes  lie  stops  to  talk  politics  to  men  along  the 
line  and  with  whom  he  is  acquainted. 

2.  He  declares  that  unconsciously,  and  combined  with 
higher  things,  paganism  is  yet  a  factor  in  religion. 

3.  The  story  was  enough  to  make  any  one  shake  and  to 
cause  their  teeth  to  chatter. 

4.  I  thought  sure  something  was  shaking  my  bed,  but  I 
found  that  it  was  only  me  trembling  from  fright. 

5.  I  laid  down  and  cried  myself  to  sleep. 

6.  The  lesson  progressed  without  me  being  called  upon. 

7.  I  did  not  enjoy  myself  near  so  much  as  usual. 

8.  This  morning  I  came  to  school  without  my  lesson  and 
feeling  very  much  worried  over  prospective  failure  in  the 
recitation. 

9.  I  could  not  enjoy  the  work  though  I  tried  to. 

10.  As  I  looked  up,  I  saw  a  boy  who  I  suddenly  realized  I 
owed  ten  cents. 

11.  The  most  interesting  time  of  a  child's  life  is  when  they 
first  start  to  school. 

12.  I  shall  try  and  see  you  at  the  end  of  the  period. 

13.  The  poems  which  I  believe  brings  out  his   originality 
most  are  the  following. 

14.  His  view  of  conceit  is  much  different  than  his  general 
view. 

15.  AVhen    you    read    his    poems    you    cannot    help   from 
coinciding  with  his  views. 

16.  If  some  girl  or  boy  should  declare  that  their  football 
team  was  better  than  ours,  we  would  hastily  deny  the  statement. 

17.  A  student  was  called  upon  to  recite,  and  the  floor  being 
slippery  and  rising  from  her  seat,  she  fell. 

18.  My  feelings  were  different  to  what  they  are  now. 

19.  He  did  not  notice  or  speak  to  any  one. 

20.  I  was  not  the  only  one  Avho  did  not  know  their  lesson. 

21.  I  told  him  to  go,  which  he  did. 

22.  I  found  that  it  was  a  difficult  matter  to  work  your  way 
through  collesre. 


COMMON  ERRORS  IN  GRAMMAR        501 

23.  I  was  afraid  to  even  try. 

24.  How  can  one  learn  definitions  when  you  are  longing  for 
a  breath  of  fresh  air. 

25.  When  I  finally  got  out,  which  I  did  with  great  difficulty, 
I  began  to  breathe  freely. 

26.  The    strange    creature    made    circles    just    like    a   cat 
would. 

27.  I  heard  a  peculiar  sound  as  if  some  one  was  trying  to 
get  in. 

28.  I  laid  down  on  the  couch  and  was  soon  fast  asleep. 

29.  It  seemed  like  he  had  buried  his  religion  in  the  grave 
of  his  wife. 

30.  I  will  try  and  endure  it  as  patiently  as  I  can. 

31.  What  is  left  upon  the  board  count  them  and  you  will 
have  the  score. 

32.  The  book  which  you  have  loaned  me,  I  have  read  it 
through. 

33.  I  Avould   rather   die   than   see  you  suffer  as  you  will 
have  to. 

34.  John  said,  "I  wish  1  was  back  in  the  grades." 

35.  It  looks  like  it  is  going  to  rain. 

36.  For  a  person  who  has  studied  one  line  of  work  it  will 
be  easier  for  him  to  get  a  good  position. 

37.  He  uttered  his  words  carefully  and  with  deliberation. 

38.  I  shall  relate  to  you  an  experience  of  mine  and  which 
nearly  cost  me  my  life. 

39.  The  author  wrote  partly  that  he  might  win  fame  and 
partly  as  a  means  of  earning  a  living. 

40.  You  asked  me  to  write  to  you,  which  pleased  me  very 
much. 

41.  Mr.  Brown  is  as  anxious  or  more  anxious  than  I  am  to 
bring  about  this  reform. 

42.  I  was  so  sorry  to  have  missed  you  yesterday. 

43.  She   is    one  of   those    girls   whom  they  say  are  to  be 
married  soon. 


502  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

44.  A  certain  student  whom  I  am  convinced  is  thoroughly 
reliable  has  been  accused  of  taking  books  from  the  library. 

45.  Senator   Taylor  who  we  expected  to  support   the   bill 
voted  against  it. 

46.  The  conditions    proposed  were   satisfactory  to   myself 
and  wife. 

47.  J.  S.  Church  is  an  artist  of  wide  reputation  and  whose 
pictures  are  attracting  favorable  notice. 

48.  She  deeply  regretted  me  going  away. 

49.  He  asked  us  not  to  mention  him  being  here. 

50.  His  attitude  is  very  much  different  now  than  it  was  a 
week  ago. 

51.  With  conditions  of  these  kind  he  refused  to  comply. 

52.  To  merely  grant  the  request  is  all  he  asked  of  us. 

53.  Behind  us  w^as  the  twinkling  lights  of  the  city,  which 
seemed  to  gradually  fade  away  as  we  passed  down  the  river. 

54.  I  never  visit  a  city  without  I  secure  some  souvenir  for 
my  collection. 

55.  All  the  spare  time  we  have  we  use  it  in  reading. 

56.  It  is  natural  for  any  one  to  want  a  collection  like  this  if 
they  can  obtain  it,  which  is  very  difficult  in  modern  times. 

57.  The  scenery  on  some  of  these  souvenir  cards  are  very 
beautiful  and  make  me  wish  I  could  go  and  see  them. 

58.  Every  time  one  of  my  friends  start  on  a  journey  I  ask 
them  to  bring  me  a  souvenir. 

59    Mary  told  me  to  be  sure  and  come. 

60.  The  Last   of  the   Mohicans   is  as   interesting    or   even 
more  interesting  than  The  Deerslayer. 

61.  I  wish  if  you  possibly  can  you  would  send  immediate 
aid. 

62.  His  first  crop  of  potatoes  w^ere  sold  at  a  big  profit. 

63.  The  waters  raised  rapidly  and  overflowed  its  banks. 

64.  All  books  were  lain  aside  and  school  was  soon  dismissed. 

65.  Lincoln  though  he  finally  abolisliod  slavery  in  order  to 
save  the  Union,  he  was  opposed  to  it  at  hrst. 


COMMON   ERRORS  IN   GRAMMAR  503 

66.  Who  do  you  think  I  resemble? 

67.  The  orphan  whom  I  adopted  and  whom  they  assured  me 
was  very  promising  has  disappointed  all  my  expectations. 

68.  If  George  was  only  here  he  would  help  us. 

69.  A  row  of  houses  are  situated  just  back  of  the  courthouse. 

70.  The  auditor's  reputation  was  ruined  by  these  kind  of 
statements. 

71.  She  very  much  desires  and  I  think  she  will  succeed  in 
bringing  about  this  reform. 

72.  He  has  not  attended  but  two  classes  to-day. 

73.  The  splendid  crop  of  wheat  and  corn  have  been  gathered 
and  stored  in  the  barns. 

74.  He  hoped  to  have  accomplished  this  task  before  this. 

75.  One  day  last  spring  as  I  together  with  my  two  cousins 
were  returning  from  the  woods,  we  saw  a  big  black  snake. 

76.  Higher  and  higher  it  arose  until  the  whole  country  was 
lighted  by  it's  rays. 

77.  The  brave  boy  was  neither  to  be  frightened  or  bribed. 

78.  He  was  not  alone  disappointed  but  very  angry  over  the 
decision. 

79.  He  was  neither  willing  to  forgive  me  nor  my  sister. 

80.  The  teacher  not  only  refused  to  pass  me  but  many  others. 

81.  He  spoke  too  loudly. 

82.  The  music  sounded  faintly  but  sweetly. 

83.  She  fought  like  a  tigress  fights. 

84.  You  recited  like  you  were  afraid. 

85.  If  she  would  consent  to  act  as  censor,  the  students  will 
"be  very  grateful. 

86.  When   the   lesson   was   assigned,    I   intended  to  have 
studied  it. 

87.  I  would  rather  fail  on  this  examination  than  to  be  guilty 
of  cheating. 

88.  I  will  be  delighted  to  receive  your  assistance. 

89.  The  vase  has  set  in  that  position  for  two  years. 

90.  The  murderer  was  hung  yesterday. 


504  COMPOSITION    AND   RHETORIC 

91.  To  be  acquainted   with   an    author  does  not   mean  to 
merely  read  his  biography. 

92.  He  wished  to  gently  remind  her  of  her  promise. 

93.  The  applicant  submitted  a  manuscript  carefully  prepared 
and  which  secured  him  a  good  position. 

94.  It  does  not  seem  hardly  possible  that  such  a  wonderful 
change  has  occurred. 

95.  In  this  canoe  was  seated  two  or  three  persons  who  we 
could  see  but  dimly. 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH 

In  modern  teaching  less  attention  is  being  paid  to  the 
names  which  rhetoricians  have  given  to  figures  of  speech ; 
and  more  attention  is  paid  to  the  apperception  of  images 
which  figurative  language  suggests.  As  a  part  of  our 
working  vocabulary,  however,  it  is  advisable  for  us  to 
learn  the  names  of  the  commoner  figures,  to  distinguish 
them  when  we  see  or  hear  them  employed,  and  to  use 
them  in  our  own  writing  when  we  can  thereby  make  our 
thoughts  clearer  or  more  effective.  We  should,  on  the 
other  hand,  avoid  the  use  of  figurative  language  with  the 
obvious  design  of  mere  ornamentation. 

Below,  in  alphabetical  arrangement,  we  have  the  prin- 
cipal figures  of  speech  defined  and  illustrated. 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  an  initial  letter  in  words 
which  stand  near  each  other. 

Apt  Alliteration's  artful  aid. 

Lingers  around  the  lilied,  lowland  waters Stevenson. 

Many  a  morning  in  the  moorland  did  we  hear  the  copses 
ring.  —Tennyson. 

A  shielded  scutcheon  blushed  with  blood  of  queens  and 
kings.  —  Keats. 

Lulled  by  the  coil  of  his  crystalline  streams Shelley. 

Where  wild  in  the  woodlands  the  primroses  blow,  —  Burns. 

505 


506  COMPOSITION   AND   RHETORIC 

Antithesis  is  a  contra.st  of  words  or  expressions  in  the 
same  sentence. 

The  Puritan  hated  hear-baitinjij,  not  because  it  gave  pain  to 
the  bear,  but  because  it  gave  pleasure  to  the  spectator. 

—  Macaulay. 

There  is  no  place  where  the  young  are  more  gladly  conscious 
of  their  youth,  or  the  old  better  contented  Avith  their  age. 

—  Stevenson. 

A  bird  in  the  hand  is  worth  two  in  the  bush. 

It  was  the  best  of  times,  it  Avas  the  worst  of  times,  it  was 
the  age  of  wisdom,  it  was  the  age  of  foolishness.  —  Dickens. 

Apostrophe  is  a  direct  address  to  persons  or  things 
present  or  absent.  It  is  often  more  narrowly  applied  to 
persons  and  things,  directly  addressed,  that,  in  the  imag- 
iimtion  of  the  speaker,  are  conceived  as  present  and 
capable  of  understanding,  but  that  in  reality  are  absent 
and  incapable  of  understanding. 

0  grave,  where  is  thy  victory  ?  —  Bible. 

Thou,  too,  sail  on,  0  Ship  of  State.  —  Longfellow. 

Venerable  men !  you  have  come  down  from  a  former 
generation.  —  Webster. 

My  country,  'tis  of  thee, 

Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee  I  sing.  —  S.  F.  Smith. 

Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean,  roll.  —  Byron. 

0  Caledonia !  stern  and  wild, 

Meet  nurse  for  a  poetic  child.  —  Scott. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  507 

Hyperbole  is  obvious  exaggeration. 

All  the  perfumes  in  Arabia  will  not  sweeten  this  little  hand. 

—  Macbeth. 

Falstaff  sweats  to  death,  and  lards  the  lean  earth  as  he 
walks  along.  —  Shakespeare. 

He  was  tall,  bnt  exceedingly  lank,  with  narrow  shoulders, 
long  arms  and  legs,  hands  that  dangled  a  mile  out  of  his 
sleeves,  feet  that  might  have  served  for  shovels,  and  his  whole 
frame  most  loosely  hung  together.  —  Irving. 

Interrogation  is  the  phrasing  of  a  thought  in  question 
form,  not  for  the  purpose  of  securing  a  reply,  but  for  the 
purpose  of  producing  a  rhetorical  effect. 

Hast  thou  perceived  the  breadth  of  the  earth  ?  —  Bible. 

Canst  thou  bind  the  sweet  influence  of  the  Pleiades,  or  loose 
the  bands  of  Orion  ?  —  Bible. 

Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 

Can  honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust. 

Or  flattery  soothe  the  dull  cold  ear  of  death  ?  —  Gray. 

How  shall  I  struggle  with  the  emotions  that  stifle  the 
utterance  of  thy  name  ?  —  Webster. 

A  Metaphor  implies  a  contrast  between  two  things. 

Petulant  she  spoke,  and  at  herself  she  laugh'd ; 

A  rosebud  set  Avith  little  wilful  thorns.  —  Tennyson. 

And  there  was  Kalph  himself, 
A  broken  statue  propt  against  the  wall.  — Tennyson. 

At  one  stride  comes  the  dark.  —  Coleridge. 


508  COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 

All  the  worltl's  a  stage — Shakkspeare. 
She  speaks  poniards  and  eveiy  word  stabs. 

SlIAKKSPEAUE. 

Thy  word  is  a  lamp  unto  my  feet,  and  a  lit^lit  unto  my 
path.  — Bim.E. 

Silently,  one  by  one,  in  the  iniinite  meadows  of  heaven, 
Blossomed  the  lovely  stars,  the  forget-me-nots  of  the  angels. 

—  Longfellow. 

Metonymy  presents  an  object,  not  by  directly  namin"-  it, 
l)iit  by  naniinuf  something  so  closely  related  that  the  object 
itself  is  at  once  called  to  mind.  'J'hus  Avlien  we  say,  The 
pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword,  we  mean  of  course  that 
writers  exert  a  more  powerful  influence  than  do  soldiers. 

Uneasy  lies  the  head  that  wears  a  crown Shakespeare. 

Then  to  the  well-trod  stage  anon 

If  Johnson's  learned  sock  be  on Milton. 

Note.  Sock,  as  here  used,  is  the  low-heeled  shoe  worn  by  the  actor 
hi  a  comedy. 

Between  the  cradle  and  the  shroud.  —  Wihttier. 

Foemen  worthy  of  their  steel Scott. 

Onomatopoeia  is  the  grouping  of  words  in  such  a  way  as 
to  make  tlic  sound  of  the  words  suggest  the  sense. 

At  eve  the  beetle  boometh Tennyson. 

I  heard  the  ripple  washing  in  the  reeds, 

And  the  wild  water  lai)i)ing  on  the  crag Tennyson. 

The  double,  double,  double  beat 
Of  the  thundering  drum.  —  Dkyden. 


FIGURES  OF   SPEECH  509 

The  soft  complaining  flute 

In  dying  tones  discovers 

The  woes  of  hopeless  lovers Drtden. 

Keeping  time,  time,  time, 
In  a  sort  of  Runic  rhyme, 
To  the  tintinnabulation  that  so  musically  wells 
From  the  bells,  bells,  bells,  bells Poe. 

Synecdoche  puts  a  part  for  the  whole,  or  the  whole  for  a 
part. 

He  is  very  Hercules. 

I  have  sixty  sails,  Caesar  no  better Shakkspeare. 

I  know  not  where  his  islands  lift 
Their  fronded  palms  in  air AVhittier. 

Some  mute  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest —  Gray. 

Personification  attributes  life  and  spirit  to  inanimate 
objects.  Sometimes  these  personifications  are  written 
with  a  capital  letter. 

But  knowledge  to  their  eyes  her  ample  page 
Rich  with  the  spoils  of  time  did  ne'er  unroll; 
Chill  penury  repressed  their  noble  rage. 
And  froze  the  genial  current  of  the  soul —  Gray. 

The  sea  saw  it  and  fled —  Bible. 

Amidst  the  storm  they  sang ; 

And  the  Stars  heard,  and  the  Sea —  Mrs.  Hemans. 

A  Simile  expressly  points  out  a  comparison  between  two 
things.  Generally  —  though  not  always  —  this  compari- 
son is  introduced  by  like  or  as. 

Pleasures  are  like  poppies  spread Burns. 


510  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

He  is  as  silent  as  an  Egyptian  nuunmy. 

How  far  that  little  candle  throws  its  beams! 
So  shines  a  good  deed  in  a  naughty  world. 

SUAKKSI'EARE. 

The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold. 

BVUON. 

As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far  hath  he  removed 
our  transgressions  from  us Bihli:. 

Then  had  thy  peace  been  as  a  river,  and  thy  righteousness 
as  the  waves  of  the  sea Bible. 

EXERCISE 

JVame  (Did  distini/uish  tlie  jiyures  of  speech  in  the  follow- 
ing list  of  quotations : 

1.  And  now  the  storm-blast  came,  and  he 
Was  tyrannous  and  strong Coleridge. 

2.  The  little  bird  sits  at  his  door  in  the  sun, 
Atilt  like  a  blossom  among  the  trees Lowell. 

3.  The  furrow  followed  free Coleridge. 

4.  The  body  of  Benjamin  Franklin  (like  the  cover  of  a 
book,  its  contents  torn  out  and  stript  of  its  lettering  and 
gilding)  lies  here,  food  for  worms Fkanklix. 

5.  Hail,  Holy  Light,  Offspring  of  heaven's  firstborn. 

—  Milton. 

6.  And  as  he  plucked  his  cursed  steel  away, 
Mark  how  the  blood  of  Ca'sar  followed  it. 

—  Shakespeare. 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  511 

7.  Love  may  come,  and  love  may  go, 

And  fly  like  a  bird  from  tree  to  tree.  —  Tennyson, 

8.  Southward  with  fleet  of  ice 

Sailed  the  corsair  Death.  —  Longfellow. 

9.  Still  with  their  fires,  Love  tipped  his  keenest  darts. 

—  Tennyson. 

10.  Never  be  thy  shadow  less.  —  Whittier. 

11.  Up,  clouted  knee  and  ragged  coat ! 
A  man's  a  man  to-day.  —  Whittier, 

12.  I  bit  my  arm,  I  sucked  the  blood, 

And  cried,  "  A  sail !  a  sail  !  "  —  Coleridge. 

13.  The  cruel  rocks,  they  gored  her  side 

Like  the  horns  of  an  angry  bull.  —  Longfellow. 

14.  'Tis  done  —  but  yesterday  a  king, 
And  armed  with  kings  to  strive  — 
And  now  thou  art  a  nameless  thing, 
So  abject,  yet  alive.  —  Byron. 

15.  Stars,  hide  your  fires.  —  Shakespeare. 

16.  Will  all  great  Neptune's  ocean  wash  this  blood 
Clean  from  my  hand  ?     No,  this  my  hand  will  rather 
The  multitudinous  seas  incarnadine. 

Making  the  green  one  red.  —  Shakespeare. 

17.  List  to  the  mournful  tradition  still  sung  by  the  pines  of 

the  forest.  —  Longfellow. 

18.  Cowards  die  many  times  before  their  deaths ; 
The  valiant  never  taste  of  death  but  once. 

—  Shakespeare. 


512  COMPOSITION   AND  RHETORIC 

19.  I  wandered  lonely  as  a  cloud.  —  WouuswouTn. 

20.  A  Sonnet  is  a  moment's  monument,  — 
Memorial  from  the  Soul's  eternity 

To  one  dead,  deathless  hour.  —  D.  G.  Rossetti. 

21.  Then  my  heart  it  grew  ashen  and  sober 

As  the  leaves  that  were  crisped  and  sere.  —  Poe. 

22.  Sweet  Thames  !  run  softly,  till  I  end  my  song. 

—  Spenser. 

23.  I  saw  Eternity  the  other  night, 

Like  a  great-ring  of  pure  and  endless  light, 

All  calm,  as  it  was  bright: 

And  round  l)eneath  it,  Time,  in  hours,  days,  years, 

Driven  in  the  sjiheres, 

Like  a  vast  shadow  moved :  in  which  the  A\'orld 

And  all  her  train  were  hurl'd — Vaughan. 


INDEX 


accept  of,  165. 

acoustics,  165. 

Addison,  108. 

address,  the,  209. 

adjectives,  number  forms  of,  466. 

affect,  165. 

aggravate,  165. 

ain't,  165. 

Allen,  James  Lane,  291,  292. 

all  of,  165. 

allow,  165. 

allusion,  170. 

among,  165. 

and,  165. 

Anglo-Saxon,  183. 

anxiotis,  166. 

any  place,  165. 

anyways,  165. 

anywheres,  165. 

apostrophe,  uses  of,  444. 

approach,  166. 

aren't,  166. 

argumentation,  332. 

Arnold,  Matthew,  77,  239. 

arrangement  of  elements  of  sentence, 

114. 
as,  166,  170. 
at,  166. 
awful,  awfully,  166. 

6acA;  a  letter,  166. 
fcac/c  o/,  166. 
fead,  badly,  166. 
Bagehot,  61,  62. 
balance,  166. 
Balzac,  Honore<le,  305. 
Bates,  Arlo,  79,  316. 
be  back,  166. 
heginrnng,  166. 
beginnings  of  letters,  216. 
Bell,  Dr.,  188. 
beside,  besides,  166. 


between,  166. 

blame,  166. 

body  of  letter,  209. 

both,  166. 

6oi/i  alike,  167. 

boughten,  167. 

bound,  167. 

brackets,  uses  of,  444. 

brainy,  167. 

brief,  the,  340. 

Browning,  61. 

Bryant,  303. 

Bryce,  58,  70,  309,  313. 

Bunyan,  184. 

Burke,  240,  333,  334,  336. 

burstcd,  167. 

but,  167. 

but  that,  167. 

cacophonous  words,  182. 

calculate,  167. 

can,  171. 

cannot  help  but,  167. 

can'i  hardly,  167. 

capital  letters,  uses  of,  450. 

Carlyle,  78,  82,  239. 

case,  errors  in,  456. 

cause  and  effect,  70. 

chronological  narrative,  248 

clever,  167. 

coherence,  17,  18,  290,  311. 

in  argument,  334. 

in  description,  290. 

in  narration,  256,  260. 

in  the  paragraph,  51,  53. 

in  the  sentence,  138. 
Coleridge,  182. 
ColUns,  Wilkie,  250. 
colon,  uses  of,  436. 
comma,  uses  of,  426. 
comparison,  64. 
complected,  167. 


i313 


514 


INDEX 


complex  sentence,  89,  97,  101,  lOR. 
compound  sentence,  89,  97,  101,  108. 
connectives,  92,  93,  495. 
contrast,  68. 
Cooper,  100,  107,  119,  120,  253,  205, 

277. 
cmipic,  107. 
(Vahb, 188. 
Curtis,  11,  240,  313. 
cute,  107. 

(lasli,  uses  of,  441. 
debate,  338. 

conventions  of,  339. 

organizing  the,  339. 

questions  for,  345. 
Defoe,  84. 
demean,  167. 
depot,  108. 
De   (2uincey,  81. 
description,  272, 

informal,  307. 

use  of,  268. 
details,  58. 

Dictionary,  Standard,  177. 
different  than,  108. 
different  to,  108. 
directions,  specific,  311. 
don't,  108. 
douht  hut,  168. 

each,  168. 

effect,  168. 

electrocute,  168. 

elegant,  168. 

Eliot,  George,  209,  273. 

Emerson,  39,  138,  240,  246,  313. 

emigrate,  168. 

emphasis,  20,  22,  153,  311. 

hindrances  to,  152. 

in  argument,  330. 

in  description,  290,  304. 

in  exposition,  311. 

in  narration,  264. 

in  paragraph,  56. 

in  sentence,  149. 
endings  of  letters,  216. 
Enoch  Arden,  62. 
enthuse,  168. 

equally  as  great,  equally  as  well,  168. 
errors  in  agreement,  463. 


euphonious  words,  182. 

except,  168. 

exclamation  point,  uses  of,  440. 

expect,  168. 

exposition,  308. 

farther,  168. 

Fcrnald,  188. 

fetch,  168. 

few  words,  192. 

fewer,  170. 

fine,  168. 

firstly,  168. 

first  rate,  169. 

fix,  169. 

flee,  169. 

flow,  169. 

fly,  169. 

folding  of  the  sheet,  203. 

folks,  169. 

for,  109. 

forms  of  discourse,  239. 

forward,  forwards,  169. 

friendly  letters,  214. 

from  hence,  thence,  whence,  169. 

further,  168. 

Gayley,  137. 

general  observations,  350. 

gent,  gentleman,  169. 

get  to]  169. 

good  deal,  great  deal,  169. 

good  use,  102,  175. 

violations  of,  164. 
Gorky,  178. 
got,  gotten,  169. 
graduated,  169. 
graft,  169. 

grammar,  errors  in,  455. 
grammatical  observations,  351. 
Green,  J.  R.,  313. 
Greenough,  74,  314. 
grouping,  296. 
gumption,  169. 

had  better,  had  rather,  169. 
had  hare,  109. 
Hamilton,  William,  187. 
Hawthorne,  9,  11,  79,  107,  119,  120, 

255,  287,  288,  291,  292,  294,  295, 

301,  305. 


INDEX 


515 


heading,  the,  208. 
healthful,  healthy,  169. 
Hill,  A.  S.,  196. 
home,  169. 
hoiu,  170. 

Hugo,  Victor,  296, 
hung,  170. 
Huxley,  76. 
hyphen,  uses  of,  445. 

if,  170. 

illusion,  170. 

illy,  170. 

immigrate,  168. 

importance  of  arrangement,  151. 

in,  into,  170. 

incident,  outline  for,  351. 

incoherence,  138,  139,  142,  145. 

indention,  35,  170. 

indicative  mode,  482. 

in  our  midst,  170. 

Ir\ang,  11,  35,  36,  37,  39,  90,  99,  105, 

lOfi,  107,  132,  136,  239,  270,  298, 

299,  447. 
italics,  uses  of,  445. 

Johnson,  184. 

Kephart,  314. 
kind  of,  170. 
kinst7ian,  170. 
Kipling,  170. 
Kittredge,  74, 

Lamb,  42. 

last,  latest,  170. 

later  on,  170. 

Latin,  183. 

leave,  170. 

less,  170. 

letter  writing,  202. 

liable,  170. 

like,  170,  494. 

limited,  171. 

Lincoln,  145,  146,  248. 

loan,  171. 

locate,  171. 

London,  Jack,  79,  180,  271. 

look  badly,  171. 

loose  sentences,  117,  121. 

lot,  lots,  171. 

Lowell,  9. 


Macaulay,  11,  80,  314. 
mad,  171. 
Maeterlinck,  276. 
Markham,  260. 
may,  171. 

mechanical  points,  10. 
methods,  188. 
Morris,  129. 
most,  171. 
7)iuch  of,  171. 

narration,  248. 
national  \ise,  163. 
negatives,  double,  499. 
neglect,  negligence,  171. 
neither,  171. 
Newcomer,  137. 
Newman,  J.  H.,  397. 
new  words,  188,  189. 
nice,  171. 
Nicholson,  222. 
nicker,  171. 
none,  171. 
nor,  171. 

notes  and  warnings,  466. 
nouns,  case  of,  456. 
no  use,  172. 

O,  oh,  172. 

objects,  double,  498. 

observance,  observation,  172. 

off,  172. 

official,  officious,  172. 

one,  172. 

only,  172. 

onto,  172. 

•br,  171,  172. 

oral,  175. 

oral  composition,  348,  390. 

out,  172. 

outclassed,  172. 

outdoors,  172. 

overly,  172. 

Palmer,  176,  189,  193,  214. 
pants,  173. 

paragraph,  34  ff.,  58. 
parentheses,  uses  of,  444. 
Parkman,  77. 
participial  phrase,  499. 
parts  of  letter,  203. 


516 


INDEX 


parts  of  speech,  confusion  of,  493. 

■party,  173. 

Tater,  247. 

V<r,  173. 

]>('rioil,  uses  of,  424. 

periodic  sentence,  117,  121. 

Perry,  liliss,  24G. 

persecute,  on  prosecute,  173. 

phenomenon,  189. 

phone,  173. 

photo,  173. 

plenti),  173. 

plot  narration,  250. 

Poe,  40,  82,  150,  271,  284,  287,  302. 

point  of  view,  282. 

Pope,  127. 

posted,  173. 

prescribe,  proscribe,  173. 

present  use,  163. 

preventative,  173. 

previous  to,  173. 

principles  of  guidance,  278. 

pronouns,  457-463. 

proofs,  74,  339. 

proved,  173. 

providing,  173. 

piuict nation,  424  ff. 

<iualities,  essential,  251,  277. 
question  mark,  uses  of,  439. 
HUestion,  selecting  a,  338. 
quite,  173. 
quotation  marks,  uses  of,  443. 

raise,  173. 

rarely  ever,  173. 

real,  173. 

war,  173. 

rebuttal,  339. 

recipe,  receipt,  173. 

referee,  173. 

relation,  relative,  173. 

remember  of,  173. 

repeat,  173. 

repetition,  74. 

replies  to  friendly  letters,  222. 

reputable  u.se,  li  2. 

retire,  173. 

reverend,  reverent,  173. 

rlietorical  essentials  of  sentence,  126. 

rig,  174. 


Roget,  188. 

Kuskin,  11,  30,  .300,  313. 

St.  Bernard,  13S. 

salutation,  the,  208. 

says,  174. 

Scott,  116,  239,  241,  252,  258,  265, 

269,  270. 
selection  of  details,  277,  278,  279. 
seldom  or  ever,  174. 
semicolon,  uses  of,  432. 
sentence,  the,  85,  89,  351. 
set,  sit,  174. 

Shakspere,  9,  129,  162,  163,  258. 
shall  and  ivill,  473. 
Sharp,  318. 
shoidd  and  xvoidd,  476. 
some  anti  somewhat,  174. 
someivheres,  174. 
sort  of,  170. 

sources  of  effectiveness,  268,  305. 
speeches,  not  to  be  committed,  340. 
split  infinitive,  492. 
stay,  174. 

Stevens,  227,  230,  231. 
Stevenson,  11,  83,  190,  303,  306. 
Stockton,  105. 
stop,  174. 
story-telling,  370. 
subject,  choosing  the,  1. 

limiting  the,  4. 
subjunctive  mode,  482. 
subscription,  the,  210. 
sxibsequent  to,  172. 
such  a,  174. 

supcrscrijjtion,  the,  210. 
Swift,  316. 

Taylor,  Jeremy,  184. 
Tennyson,  11.  61. 
tense,  errors  in,  469. 
Thackeray,  11,  80. 
than  ivhom,  174. 
theme-correcting,  397,  402. 
tliemo  titles,  2. 
theme,  writing  the,  5. 
those  kind,  those  sort,  174. 
through,  174. 
to,  174. 
topic-sentences,  34. 


INDEX 


517 


toward,  towards,  174. 
transitive  verbs,  485. 
translations,  188. 
transpire,  174. 
Trench,  188. 
try  and,  175. 
two  first,  two  last,  175. 
Tyndall,  65. 

unique,  175. 
unity,  11,  12. 

aids  to,  44. 

depending  on  point  of  \new,  254. 

how  to  secure,  132. 

lack  of,  128,  129,  131. 

in  argument,  333. 

in  description,  277. 

in  exposition,  310. 

in  narrative,  251,  254. 

in  paragraph,  42. 

in  sentence,  126. 

test  of,  136. 

violations  of,  47. 


Van  Dyke,  9,  227,  229,  30G,  307,  317. 

verbal,  175. 

verbs,  465,  469,  489,  492. 

very,  175. 

vocabulary,  a  large,  187. 

Warner,  118. 

ways,  175. 

Webster,  40,  120,  131,  136,  137,  240, 

245,  313,  336. 
Wendell,  314. 
Westminster  Abbey,  116. 
whole  composition,  the,  10. 
Wiggin,  227,  232. 
icill,  473. 
without,  175. 
witness,    175. 
words,  11,  161,  351. 

general  and  specific,  177. 

judged  by  effectiveness,  176. 

strong  and  hackneyed,  185. 
Wordsworth,  61,  260"! 
would,  476. 


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